BivalTyp

Adyghe (West Circassian)

Contributed by Peter Arkadiev (Academia.edu profile) and Irina Bagirokova

P.A.'s photo I.B.'s photo

The data were provided by Irina Bagirokova in 2017 and analysed by Peter Arkadiev and Irina Bagirokova in 2018. They represent standard written West Circassian based on the Temirgoy dialect. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Arkadiev, Peter & Irina Bagirokova. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Adyghe (West Circassian). In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on July 25, 2023; last revised on November 19, 2023.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Adyghe is a polysynthetic language with both head-marking and dependent-marking. All arguments of the verb are indexed on the verb by person/number prefixes, although it has to be borne in mind that most 3rd person (singular) prefixes are zero. Argument indexing displays the ergative alignment. There are three types of indexes: absolutive prefixes are used for encoding S- and O-arguments, ergative indexes are used for encoding A-arguments, and indirect-object prefixes are used for encoding indirect objects as well as adnominal possessors. The actual form of indexes in shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Person/number prefixes

Abs IO Erg
1Sg sə- s-/z- s-/z-
1Pl tə- t-/d- t-/d-
2Sg wə- w-/p-/b- w-/p-/b-
2Pl ŝʷə- ŝʷ-/ẑʷ- ŝʷ-/ẑʷ-
3Sg ∅ ∅ jə-/ə-
3Pl ∅ a- a-

Linear position of indexes is even more important for distinguishing between the verb’s arguments than the shape of indexes. Absolutive indexes always occupy the leftmost slot in the verb, see example (1). Ergative indexes, if present, are always the rightmost indexes in the verb, see example (2). Indexing of non-core arguments is always associated with applicative preverbs, including dative (je- ~ e- ~ r-), benefactive (fe-), comitative (de-), malefactive (ṣ̂ʷe-) and a large number of locative preverbs. These indexes normally immediately precede their respective preverbs. Example (1) illustrates the combination of a personal prefix with the benefactive applicative, and example (3) shows the dative applicative fused with a 3rd plural indirect object prefix.

(1)  wə-qə-s-fe-mə-zešʼ
     2SG.ABS-CSL-1SG.IO-BEN-NEG-miss
     ‘Don’t miss me!’

(2)  pŝaŝe-m   txəλə-r   q-ə-šta-ʁ
     girl-OBL  book-ABS  CSL-3SG.ERG-take-PST
     ‘The girl took the book.’

(3)  č̣ʼale-r  bzeǯʼaṣ̂e-me      ja-zawe
     guy-ABS  hooligan-OBL.PL  3PL.IO+DAT-fight
     ‘The guy is fighting with the hooligans.’

In addition to the indexing prefixes, Adyghe also has an (optional) plural suffix -x(e), which shows agreement with plural absolutive arguments, see example (4).

(4)  t-jə-wəne-xe-r            č̣e-tə-na-ʁe-x
     1PL.PR-POSS-house-PL-ABS  LOC:UNDER-1PL.ERG-leave-PST-PL
     ‘We lost our houses.’

Case system

Adyghe has case-marking on nominals, excluding 1st and 2nd person pronouns, most proper names as well as non-specific NPs. This is why most examples involve two definite common nouns like ‘the girl’ or ‘the book’. The case system consists of two grammatical cases, the absolutive with the suffix -r and the oblique with the suffix -m (-š’ with demonstratives, -me when cumulative with plural). The patterns of case-marking and verbal indexing closely match each other: the oblique case occurs on the 3rd person arguments indexed by the non-absolutive series of person-number prefixes, i.e. on transitive As, see example (2), and indirect objects, see example (3), while the absolutive case appears on 3rd person arguments indexed in the verb by the absolutive indexes, i.e. on S and O, see examples (3) and (2), respectively. Given that 3rd person absolutive indexes are null, the nominals overtly marked by the absolutive case in fact are never overtly cross-referenced in the verb, apart from the optional plural suffix -x(e), as in example (4).

The oblique case can also appear on adnominal possessors, objects of postpositions and some adjuncts not cross-referenced in the verb. In addition to the grammatical cases there are two peripheral ones, the instrumental (-č̣ʼe) and the adverbial (-ew). Nominals marked by peripheral cases are not normally indexed on the verb, cf. example (5).

(5)  pŝaŝe-m   ŝhe.tjeχʷe-m-č̣ʼe    ʔe    q-j-e-ṣ̂ə
     girl-OBL  head_scarf-OBL-INS  hand  CSL-3SG.ERG-DYN-do
     ‘The girl is waving the headscarf.’

Verb lemmas

Verbs are quoted in the form of roots in combination with all preverbs that are relevant for the expression of the relevant lexical meaning. Thus, ‘forget’ is quoted as šʼə-ʁʷəpše, and ‘open’ as qə-ze.tje-xə.

Glosses

Abbreviations: ABS — absolutive; ADD — additive; ADV — adverbial; BEN — benefactive; CAUS — causative; COM — comitative; COND — conditional; CSL — cislocative; DAT — dative applicative; DYN — dynamic; ELAT — elative; ERG — ergative; FCT — fact; FUT — future; IMP — imperative; INS — instrumental case; INSTR — instrumental applicative; IO — indirect object; LAT — lative; LNK — linker; LOC — locative preverb; NEG — negation; OBL — oblique case; PL — plural; PO — postpositional object; POSS — possessive marker; PR — possessor; PST — past; RE — refactive; REC — reciprocal; REL — relativisation; RES — resultative; RFL — reflexive; SG — singular.

Glosses for locative preverbs: AFTER — motion after; AMONG — among / in a mass; BEHIND — area behind; CONT — container; ENCLOSURE — enclosure; FRONT — frontal area; HAND — in one’s hands; HEART — lexicalised ‘heart’ body-part root; TIP — tip; TO — motion towards; TOP — area on top of or above; UNDER — area under or below.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain wəzə

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
č̣ʼale-m ə-ŝhe me-wəzə
guy- obl 3 sg . pr -head dyn -ache
‘The guy has a headache.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

2. have (illness) jə-ʔe

Valency pattern: POSS_ABS
X: POSS
Y: ABS
Locus: X
č̣ʼale-m grip jə-ʔ
guy- obl flu( abs ) poss -be
‘The guy has the flu.’

3. be afraid šʼə-šʼəne

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC
X: ABS
Y: LOC
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r he-m šʼ-e-šʼəne
guy- abs dog- obl loc - dyn -be_afraid
‘The guy is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw ʒə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼele–nahə-ẑə-m məẑʷe-r ə-ʒə-ʁ
guy–more-old- obl stone- abs 3 sg . erg -throw- pst
‘The older guy threw the stone.’

5. have enough f-jə-qʷə

Valency pattern: BEN_ABS
X: BEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-m ʔaχčʼe fə-r-j-e-qʷə
girl- obl money( abs ) ben - lnk - loc : cont - dyn -be_enough
‘The girl has enough money.’

6. resemble je-hšʼər

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
wə-s-e-hšʼər-ep
2 sg . abs -1 sg . io - dat -similar- neg
‘You do not resemble me.’

7. believe cəhe fe-ṣ̂ə

Valency pattern: ERG_BEN
X: ERG
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-m cəhe f-j-e-ṣ̂ə
guy- obl girl- obl trust ben -3 sg . erg - dyn -do
‘The guy believes the girl.’

8. take šte

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m txəλə-r q-ə-šta-ʁ
girl- obl book- abs csl -3 sg . erg -take- pst
‘The girl took the book.’

9. see λeʁʷə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m wəne-r j-e-λeʁʷə
girl- obl house- abs 3 sg . erg - dyn -see
‘The girl sees the house.’

10. influence *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
s-jə-č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe jə-feme.bžʼəme-xe-r qə-s-tje-ha-ʁe-x
1 sg . pr - poss -teacher poss -influence- pl - abs csl -1 sg . io - loc : top -enter- pst - pl
‘My teacher has influenced me.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence. This construction is only possible when the X-argument is human.

11. encounter ʔʷə-č̣ʼe

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.FRONT
X: ABS
Y: LOC.FRONT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r policejske-m ʔʷə-č̣ʼa-ʁ
girl- abs policeman- obl loc : front -encounter- pst
‘This girl encountered the policeman.’

12. enter jə-he

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.CONT
X: ABS
Y: LOC.CONT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r wəne-m jə-ha-ʁ
girl- abs house- obl loc : cont -enter- pst
‘The girl entered the house.’

13. win tje-ḳʷe

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.TOP
X: ABS
Y: LOC.TOP
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r č̣ʼale-m tje-ḳʷa-ʁ
girl- abs guy- obl loc : top -go- pst
‘The girl beat the guy.’

14. go out jə-č̣ʼə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.CONT
X: ABS
Y: LOC.CONT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r wəne-m jə-č̣ʼə-ʁ
girl- abs house- obl loc : cont -exit- pst
‘This girl went out of the house.’

15. drive fə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
čʼemaχʷe-m čʼemə-r j-e-fə
herdsman- obl cow- abs 3 sg . erg - dyn -drive
‘This shepherd is driving the cow.’

16. bend wəfe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m qʷətame-r ə-wəfa-ʁ
guy- obl branch- abs 3 sg . erg -bend- pst
‘The guy bent the branch.’

17. tell je-ʔʷe

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
dirjekterə-m č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m r-jə-ʔʷa-ʁ:
director- obl teacher- obl 3 sg . io + dat -3 sg . erg -say- pst
‘The director told the teacher: ...’

18. hold ʔəʁ

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m txələ-r ə-ʔəʁ
girl- obl book- abs 3 sg . erg -hold
‘The girl is holding the book.’

19. catch up č̣ʼeλə-he

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.BEHIND.LOC.AFTER
X: ABS
Y: LOC.BEHIND.LOC.AFTER
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r pŝaŝe-m č̣ʼe-λə-ha-ʁ
guy- abs girl- obl loc : behind - loc : after -enter- pst
‘The guy caught up with the girl.’

20. milk šʼə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
bzəλfəʁe-m čʼemə-r ə-šʼə-ʁ
woman- obl cow- abs 3 sg . erg -milk- pst
‘The girl milked the cow.’

21. reach ne-sə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.TO
X: ABS
Y: LOC.TO
Locus: Y
λ̣ə-r psə-nepqə-m ne-sə-ʁ
man- abs water-bank- obl loc : to -reach- pst
‘The man reached the bank.’

22. touch ne-sə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.TO
X: ABS
Y: LOC.TO
Locus: Y
ŝeweẑəje-r depqə-m ne-sə-ʁ
boy- abs wall- obl loc : to -reach- pst
‘The boy touched the wall.’

23. fight je-zewe

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r bzeǯʼaṣ̂e-me ja-zawe
guy- abs hooligan- obl . pl 3 pl . io + dat -fight
‘The guy is fighting with the hooligans.’

24. be friends nəbǯʼeʁʷə

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
dirjekterə-r č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m jə-nəbǯʼeʁʷ
director- abs teacher- obl poss -friend
‘The teacher is friends with the director.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

25. think je-gʷəpšəse

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r pŝaŝe-m je-gʷəpšəse
guy- abs girl- obl 3 sg . io + dat -think
‘The guy is thinking about the girl.’

26. eat šxə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m məʔerəse-r ə-šxə-ʁ
girl- obl apple- abs 3 sg . erg -eat- pst
‘The girl ate the apple.’

27. fry ʁe-ẑe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m pagʷe-r ə-ʁe-ẑa-ʁ
guy- obl fish- abs 3 sg . erg - caus -fry(intr.)- pst
‘The guy fried the fish.’

28. wait je-že

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-r dirjekterə-m j-e-že
teacher- abs director- obl 3 sg . io + dat - dyn -wait
‘The teacher is waiting for the director.’

29. forget šʼə-ʁʷəpše

Valency pattern: LOC_ABS
X: LOC
Y: ABS
Locus: X
č̣ʼale-m adre–ʁʷegʷə-r šʼə-ʁʷəpša-ʁ
guy- obl other–road- abs loc -forget- pst
‘The guy forgot about the other road.’

30. depend je-λətəʁ

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
aqələ-r nəbžʼə-m je-λətə-ʁ
mind- abs age- obl dat -consider- res
‘Memory depends on age.’

31. call je-ǯʼe

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
ŝeweẑəje-r č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m q-je-ǯʼa-ʁ
boy- abs teacher- obl csl -3 sg . io + dat -call- pst
‘The guy called the teacher.’

32. get to know neʔʷase fe-χʷə

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
jəλes ə-pe-č̣ʼe pŝaŝe-r č̣ʼale-m neʔʷase fe-χʷə-ʁ
year 3 pl . pr -before- ins girl- abs guy- obl acquainted ben -become- pst
‘The girl got to know the guy a year ago.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

33. know ṣ̂e

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m č̣ʼale-r j-e-ṣ̂e
girl- obl guy- abs 3 sg . erg - dyn -know
‘The girl knows the guy.’

34. play (instrument) je-we

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r gitare-m je-we
girl- abs guitar- obl 3 sg . io + dat -strike
‘The girl is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid zə-šʼə-ʒəje

Valency pattern: ERG_LOC
X: ERG
Y: LOC
Locus: Y
dirjekterə-m č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m zə-šʼ-j-e-ʒə-je
director- obl teacher- obl rfl . abs - loc -3 sg . erg - dyn -throw- lat
‘The director avoids the teacher.’

36. make ṣ̂ə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
bzeǯʼaṣ̂e-m bombe-r ə-ṣ̂ə-ʁ
criminal- obl bomb- abs 3 sg . erg -do- pst
‘The criminal made the bomb.’

37. make fun č̣ʼeneč̣ʼaλe ṣ̂ə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m č̣ʼale-r č̣ʼeneč̣ʼaλe j-e-ṣ̂ə
girl- obl guy- abs ridicule 3 sg . erg - dyn -do
‘The girl is making fun of the guy.’

38. have jə-ʔe

Valency pattern: POSS_ABS
X: POSS
Y: ABS
Locus: X
bzəλfəʁe-xe-me mašəne-xe-r ja-ʔe-x
woman- pl - obl . pl car- pl - abs 3 pl . pr + poss -be- pl
‘The women have cars.’

39. look for λə-χʷə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.AFTER
X: ABS
Y: LOC.AFTER
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r ʔʷənč̣ʼəbze-xe-m a-λ-e-χʷə
guy- abs key- pl - obl 3 pl . io - loc : after - dyn -look_for
‘The guy is looking for the keys.’

40. paint ʁe.le

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m čʼewə-r ə-ʁe.la-ʁ
guy- obl fence- abs 3 sg . erg -paint- pst
‘The guy painted the fence.’

41. bite je-ceqe

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
he-r č̣ʼale-m je-ceqa-ʁ
dog- abs guy- obl 3 sg . io + dat -bite- pst
‘The dog bit the guy.’

42. forfeit č̣e-ne

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
t-jə-wəne-xe-r č̣e-tə-na-ʁe-x
1 pl . pr - poss -house- pl - abs loc : under -1 pl . erg -leave- pst - pl
‘We lost our houses.’

43. try to catch qe-wəbətə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m čʼetəwə-r q-j-e-wəbətə
girl- obl cat- abs csl -3 sg . erg - dyn -catch
‘The girl is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break ze.pə-č̣ʼə.č̣ʼə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m bešʼə-r ze-p-jə-č̣ʼə-č̣ʼə-ʁ
guy- obl stick- abs rec . io - loc : tip -3 sg . erg -break- elat - pst
‘The guy broke the stick.’

45. flatter nepc̣əč̣ʼe šʼə-tχʷə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC
X: ABS
Y: LOC
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r pŝaŝe-m ne.pc̣ə-č̣ʼe šʼ-e-tχʷə
guy- abs girl- obl false- ins loc - dyn -praise
‘The guy is flattering the girl.’

46. love (person) ṣ̂ʷə λeʁʷə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-r ṣ̂ʷə j-e-λeʁʷə
guy- obl girl- abs good 3 sg . erg - dyn -see
‘The guy loves the girl.’

47. wave ʔe ṣ̂ə

Valency pattern: ERG_INSTR.CASE
X: ERG
Y: INSTR.CASE
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-m ŝhe.tjeχʷe-m-č̣ʼe ʔe q-j-e-ṣ̂ə
girl- obl head_scarf- obl - ins hand csl -3 sg . erg - dyn -do
‘The girl is waving the headscarf.’

48. dream č̣ʼe-nec̣ə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.BEHIND
X: ABS
Y: LOC.BEHIND
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r mašəne-m č̣ʼe-nec̣ə
guy- abs car- obl loc : behind -hanker
‘The guy is dreaming of a car.’

49. wash thač̣ʼə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m čʼaške-r ə-thač̣ʼə-ʁ
guy- obl cup- abs 3 sg . erg -wash- pst
‘The guy washed the cup.’

50. put on zə.šʼə-λe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
λ̣ə-m ʁʷenčʼeǯʼə-r zə-šʼ-jə-λa-ʁ
man- obl trousers- abs rfl . io - loc -3 sg . erg -put_on- pst
‘The man put on his trousers.’

51. be called je-ʔʷe

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
mə-j kompas r-a-ʔʷe
this- obl compass( abs ) dat -3 pl . erg -say
‘This instrument is called a compass.’
Note: This is a transimpersonal construction, lit. ‘(they) say ‘compass’ to this’.

52. punish tjezər tje-λhe

Valency pattern: ERG_LOC.TOP
X: ERG
Y: LOC.TOP
Locus: Y
č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m č̣ʼale-m tjezər tr-jə-λha-ʁ
teacher- obl guy- obl punishment( abs ) loc : top -3 sg . erg -put- pst
‘The teacher punished the guy.’

53. attack tje-bene

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.TOP
X: ABS
Y: LOC.TOP
Locus: Y
məŝe-r pegʷaše-m qə-tje-bena-ʁ
bear- abs fisherman- obl csl - loc : top -struggle- pst
‘The bear attacked the fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) jə-zə χʷə

Valency pattern: LOC.CONT_ABS
X: LOC.CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šʼaλe-m psə-r jə-zə χʷə-ʁe
bucket- obl water- abs loc : cont -full become- pst
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find ʁʷetə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m ʔʷənč̣ʼəbze-xe-r q-ə-ʁʷetə-žʼə-ʁ
girl- obl key- pl - abs csl -3 sg . erg -find- re - pst
‘The girl found the keys.’

56. be short f-jə-qʷə + NEG

Valency pattern: BEN_ABS
X: BEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
č̣ʼale-m som-jə-pṣ̂ fə-r-jə-qʷə-r-ep
guy- obl rouble- lnk -ten( abs ) ben - lnk - loc : cont -be_enough- dyn - neg
‘The guy is ten roubles short.’

57. hate fe-λeʁʷə + NEG

Valency pattern: BEN_ABS
X: BEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-m č̣ʼale-r fe-λeʁʷə-r-ep
girl- obl guy- abs ben -see- dyn - neg
‘The girl hates the guy.’
Note: Lit. ‘cannot see’, with the indirect object of the benefactive corresponding to the ergative agent of the base verb ‘see’.

58. like gʷə rjəhə

Valency pattern: NominalPossessor_ABS
X: NominalPossessor
Y: ABS
Locus: X
č̣ʼale-m mə ǯʼane-r ə-gʷ r-j-e-hə
guy- obl this shirt- abs 3 sg . pr -heart loc : cont -3 sg . erg - dyn -carry
‘The guy likes this shirt.’
Note: Lit. ‘Something is bringing the shirt in the guy’s heart’.

59. need jə-šʼəč̣ʼaʁe

Valency pattern: POSS_ABS
X: POSS
Y: ABS
Locus: X
dirjekterə-m aχčʼe jə-šʼəč̣ʼaʁ
director- obl money( abs ) 3 sg . pr + poss -need
‘The director needs money.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

60. surround wəχʷərejahə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
depqə-xe-m qale-r q-a-wə.χʷəreja.hə
wall- pl - obl town- abs csl -3 pl . erg -encircle
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain fe-ne-žʼə

Valency pattern: BEN_ABS
X: BEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m dollar-jə-pṣ̂ qə-fe-ne-žʼə-ʁ
teacher- obl dollar- lnk -ten csl - ben -remain- re - pst
‘The teacher has ten dollars left.’

62. answer ǯʼewap je-tə

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-m jə-č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe ǯʼewap r-jə-tə-žʼə-ʁ.
guy- obl poss -teacher answer( abs ) 3 sg . io + dat -3 sg . erg -give- re - pst
‘The guy answered the teacher.’

63. open qə-ze.tje-xə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m banke-r qə-ze-tr-jə-xə-ʁ
guy- obl can- abs csl - rec . io - loc : top -3 sg . erg -remove- pst
‘The guy opened the can.’

64. be different fe-de + NEG

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
s-jə-ǯʼane wewjəje-m fe-d-ep
1 sg . pr - poss -shirt( abs ) yours- obl ben -similar- neg
‘My shirt is different from yours.’

65. fall behind q-jə-ne

Valency pattern: ABS_POweze
X: ABS
Y: POweze
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r pŝaŝe-m ə-wəž q-jə-na-ʁ
guy- abs girl- obl 3 sg . po -trace csl - loc : cont -remain- pst
‘The guy fell behind the girl.’

66. plough ẑʷe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
λ̣ə-m ŝʷefə-r j-e-ẑʷe
man- obl field- abs 3 sg . erg - dyn -plough
‘The man is ploughing the field.’

67. smell pə-wə

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
s-ʔe-me bjenzinə-me-r q-a-p-e-wə
1 sg . pr -hand- obl gasoline-smell- abs csl -3 pl . io - loc : tip - dyn -come
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as part of a nominal compound.

68. cross ze.pə.rə-č̣ʼə

Valency pattern: ABS_REC.IO.LOC.TIP.PRV.INSTR
X: ABS
Y: REC.IO.LOC.TIP.PRV.INSTR
Locus: Y
bzəλfəʁe-r ʁʷegʷə-m ze-pə-rə-č̣ʼə-ʁ
woman- abs road- obl rec . io - loc : tip - instr -exit- pst
‘The woman crossed the road.’

69. sing qe-ʔʷe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m wered–daxe q-ə-ʔʷa-ʁ
girl- obl song–beautiful( abs ) csl -3 sg . erg -say- pst
‘The girl sang a beautiful song.’

70. write txə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m pisme-r ə-txə-ʁ
girl- obl letter- abs 3 sg . erg -write- pst
‘The girl wrote the letter.’

71. drink jə-ŝʷə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
ŝeweẑəje-m šʼe-r r-jə-ŝʷə-ʁ
guy- obl milk- abs loc : cont -3 sg . erg -drink- pst
‘The guy drank the milk.’

72. melt ʁe-ṭḳʷə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
ležʼaḳʷe-m pceṣ̂ʷe–taqərə-r ə-ʁe-ṭḳʷə-ʁ
worker- obl lead–piece- abs 3 sg . erg - caus -melt(intr.)- pst
‘The worker melted the piece of lead.’

73. match je-ḳʷə

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
mə bgərəpxə-r s-jə-ǯʼane q-j-e-ḳʷə
this belt- abs 1 sg . pr - poss -dress csl -3 sg . io + dat - dyn -pass
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’

74. leave de-č̣ʼə

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.ENCLOSURE
X: ABS
Y: LOC.ENCLOSURE
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r jə-čʼəle de-č̣ʼə-ʁ
guy- abs 3 sg . pr + poss -village( obl ) loc : enclosure -exit- pst
‘The guy left his native village.’

75. cover č̣e-wəχʷəme

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
aləreʁʷə-m ǯʼexaŝʷe-r č̣-j-e-wəχʷəme
carpet- obl floor- abs loc : under -3 sg . erg - dyn -protect
‘The carpet covers the floor.’

76. remember qe-ṣ̂e.žʼə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
χʷəλfəʁe-m wəne-r deʁʷ-ew q-j-e-ṣ̂e-žʼə
man- obl house- abs good- adv csl -3 sg . erg - dyn -know- re
‘The man remembers the house well.’

77. help qə-d-je-ʔe

Valency pattern: ABS_COM.DAT
X: ABS
Y: COM.DAT
Locus: Y
bzəλfəʁe–halelə-r pŝaŝe-m qə-d-je-ʔa-ʁ
woman–generous- abs girl- obl csl - com - dat -touch- pst
‘The kind woman helped the girl.’

78. understand (language) qə-gʷə-rə-ʔʷe

Valency pattern: LOC.HEART.PRV.INSTR_ABS
X: LOC.HEART.PRV.INSTR
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-m frencʷəzə–bze-r qə-gʷə-r-e-ʔʷe
girl- obl f rench–language- abs csl - loc : heart - instr - dyn -say
‘The girl understands French.’

79. hit (target) je-we

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
šəbλe-r wəne-m q-je-wa-ʁ
thunder- abs house- obl csl -3 sg . io + dat -strike- pst
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself zə-wəʔʷe

Valency pattern: ERG_INSTR.CASE
X: ERG
Y: INSTR.CASE
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-m ŝhe.wəpsə-m-č̣ʼe z-jə-wəʔa-ʁ
guy- obl razor- obl - ins rfl . abs -3 sg . erg -wound- pst
‘The guy cut himself with a razor.’
Note: Dependents marked by the instrumental case are not indexed on the verb.

81. get stuck tje-pč̣ʼe

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.TOP
X: ABS
Y: LOC.TOP
Locus: Y
stekanə-r stolə-m tje-pč̣ʼa-ʁ
glass- abs table- obl loc : top -stick. lat - pst
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) tje-ḳʷe

Valency pattern: LOC.TOP_ABS
X: LOC.TOP
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-r č̣ʼale-m tje-ḳʷa-ʁ
girl- abs guy- obl loc : top -go- pst
‘The guy lost to the girl.’

83. be glad č̣ʼe-gʷəṣ̂ʷə(-č̣ʼə)

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.BEHIND
X: ABS
Y: LOC.BEHIND
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r pisme-m č̣ʼe-gʷəṣ̂ʷə-č̣ʼə-ʁ
guy- abs letter- obl loc : behind -rejoice- elat - pst
‘The guy was glad about the letter.’

84. speak de-gʷəšʼəʔe

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-r bzəλfəʁe–gʷere-m d-e-gʷəšʼəʔe
teacher- abs woman–some- obl com - dyn -speak
‘The teacher is speaking with some woman.’

85. give birth qə-fe-χʷə

Valency pattern: BEN_ABS
X: BEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
bzəλfəʁe-xe-m č̣ʼale-xe-r q-a-fe-χʷə-ʁe-x
woman- pl - obl guy- pl - abs csl -3 pl . io - ben -become- pst - pl
‘The women gave birth to sons.’

86. drop ʔe.pə-zə

Valency pattern: LOC.HAND.LOC.TIP_ABS
X: LOC.HAND.LOC.TIP
Y: ABS
Locus: X
stekanə-r p-ʔa-pə-mə-zə-ʁa-ʁe-me, qʷəte-šʼt-ʁa-ʁ-ep
glass- abs 2 sg . io - loc : hand - loc : tip - neg -fall- pst - pst - cond break(intr.)- fut - pst - pst - neg
‘If you hadn't dropped the glass, it wouldn’t have broken.’

87. govern jə-themat

Valency pattern: ABS_POSS
X: ABS
Y: POSS
Locus: Y
mə χʷəλfəʁe-r t-jə-čʼəle jə-themat
this man- abs 1 pl . pr - poss -village( obl ) 3 sg . pr + poss -boss
‘The man runs our village.’

88. miss fe-zešʼə

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
wə-qə-s-fe-mə-zešʼ
2 sg . abs - csl -1 sg . io - ben - neg -miss
‘Don’t miss me!’

89. follow ə-wəžə jə-tə

Valency pattern: ABS_POweze
X: ABS
Y: POweze
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-r č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m ə-wəžə jə-t
guy- abs teacher- obl 3 sg . po -after loc : cont -stand
‘The guy follows the teacher.’

90. dismount q-je-psə.xə-

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
seldatə-r šə-m q-je-psə-xə-ʁ
soldier- abs horse- obl csl -3 sg . io + dat -dismount- down - pst
‘The soldier got down from the horse.’

91. listen je-deʔʷə

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r radio-m j-e-deʔʷə
girl- abs radio- obl 3 sg . io + dat - dyn -listen
‘The girl is listening to radio.’

92. obey je-deʔʷə

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
mə ŝeweẑəje-r jane j-e-deʔʷə
this boy- abs (3 sg . pr )mother( obl ) 3 sg . io + dat - dyn -listen
‘The guy always listens to his mother.’

93. hear ze.xe-xə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m wered–maqe-r ze-x-j-e-xə
girl- obl song–sound- abs rec . io - loc : among -3 sg . erg - dyn -remove
‘The girl hears the music.’

94. mix xe-ḳʷeč̣ʼe

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.AMONG
X: ABS
Y: LOC.AMONG
Locus: Y
ŝʷewə-r šʼe-m xe-ḳʷeč̣ʼa-ʁ
honey- abs milk- obl loc : among -mix- pst
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look je-pλə

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r weŝʷapšʼe-me ja-pλə
girl- abs cloud- obl . pl 3 pl . io + dat -look
‘The girl is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off zə.šʼə-xə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
λ̣ə-m jə-ǯʼane zə-šʼ-jə-xə-ʁ
man- obl 3 sg . pr + poss -shirt rfl . io - loc -3 sg . erg -remove- pst
‘The man took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) pčʼəhəṗ-ew λeʁʷə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-r pčʼəhəṗ-ew j-e-λeʁʷə
guy- obl girl- abs dream- adv 3 sg . erg - dyn -see
‘The guy dreams about the girl.’

98. agree d-je-ʁe.šte

Valency pattern: ERG_COM.DAT
X: ERG
Y: COM.DAT
Locus: Y
λ̣ə-m bzəλfəʁe-m də-r-jə-ʁe-šta-ʁ
man- obl woman- obl com - dat -3 sg . erg - caus -take- pst
‘The man agreed with the woman.’

99. have a quarrel fe-gʷəbžə

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
dirjekterə-r č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m fe-gʷəbžə-ʁ
director- abs teacher- obl ben -be_angry- pst
‘The director had a quarrel with the teacher.’

100. cost wase

Valency pattern: INAL.POSS_ABS
X: INAL.POSS
Y: ABS
Locus: X
mə čʼaške-m som-jə-ŝe ə-was
this cup- obl rouble‑ lnk -hundred 3 sg . pr -price
‘This cup costs one hundred roubles.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

101. shoot at je-we

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
λ̣ə-r bzəwə-m je-wa-ʁ
man- abs bird- obl 3 sg . io + dat -strike- pst
‘The man shot at the bird.’

102. pour jə-teqʷe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m ŝʷewə.šʼəʁʷə-r čʼaške-m r-jə-teqʷa-ʁ
guy- obl sugar- abs cup- obl loc : cont -3 sg . erg -pour. lat - pst
‘The guy poured the sugar into the cup.’

103. lose ʁe.ḳʷedə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m ʔʷənč̣ʼəbze-xe-r ə-ʁe-ḳʷedə-ʁ
guy- obl key- pl - abs 3 sg . erg - caus -get_lost- pst
‘The guy lost his keys.’

104. sink č̣-jə-he

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.UNDER.LOC.CONT
X: ABS
Y: LOC.UNDER.LOC.CONT
Locus: Y
mə qʷaŝʷe-xe-r xə-m-jə, psəχʷe-m-jə a-č̣-jə-he-r-ep
this boat- pl - abs sea- obl - add river- obl - add 3 pl . io - loc : under - loc : cont -enter- dyn - neg
‘These boats do not sink in seas and rivers.’

105. kill wəč̣ʼə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
askerə-m pəjə-r ə-wəč̣ʼə-ʁ
soldier- obl enemy- abs 3 sg . erg -kill- pst
‘The soldier killed the enemy.’

106. hit je-we

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
təʁʷaḳʷe-r č̣ʼale-m je-wa-ʁ
burglar- abs guy- obl 3 sg . io + dat -strike- pst
‘The burglar hit the guy.’

107. kiss je-bewə

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r č̣ʼale-m je-bewə-ʁ
girl- abs guy- obl 3 sg . io + dat -kiss- pst
‘The girl kissed the guy.’

108. read je-ǯʼe

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r txəλ–ʁeṣ̂eʁʷenə-m je-ǯʼa-ʁ
girl- abs book–interesting- obl 3 sg . io + dat -read- pst
‘The girl read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) ʁe-χəje

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m ə-ʔeχʷambe q-ə-ʁe-χəja-ʁ
guy- obl 3 sg . pr -finger( abs ) csl -3 sg . erg - caus -move(intr.)- pst
‘The guy moved his finger.’

110. respect ŝheč̣ʼafe fe-ṣ̂ə

Valency pattern: ERG_BEN
X: ERG
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
dirjekterə-m č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m ŝheč̣ʼafe f-j-e-ṣ̂ə
director- obl teacher- obl respect( abs ) ben -3 sg . erg - dyn -do
‘The director respects the teacher.’

111. be squeamish ze-pesə + NEG

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
pŝaŝe-m haqʷəšəqʷə–ṣ̂ʷej-xe-r ze-r-jə-pesə-r-ep
girl- obl dishes–dirty- pl - abs rfl . io - dat -3 sg . erg -deign- dyn - neg
‘The girl is squeamish about dirty dishes.’

112. be content fe-raze

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
wə-s-fe-mə-raze-me, qə-s-fe-ʁe-ʁʷ
2 sg . abs -1 sg . io - ben - neg -satisfied- cond csl -1 sg . io - ben - caus -forgive( imp )
‘If you are not satisfied with me, forgive me.’

113. fall in love ṣ̂ʷə λeʁʷə

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-r ṣ̂ʷə ə-λeʁʷə-ʁ
guy- obl girl- abs good 3 sg . erg -see- pst
‘The guy fell in love with the girl.’

114. trust cəhe fe-ṣ̂ə

Valency pattern: ERG_BEN
X: ERG
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-m cəhe f-j-e-ṣ̂ə
guy- obl girl- obl trust ben -3 sg . erg - dyn -do
‘The girl trusts the guy.’

115. sympathise gʷə ʁʷə

Valency pattern: NominalPossessor_ERG
X: NominalPossessor
Y: ERG
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-m č̣ʼale-xe-m ə-gʷ ja-ʁʷə
girl- obl guy- pl - obl 3 sg . pr -heart 3 pl . erg -gnaw
‘The girl sympathises with the guys.’
Note: Lit. ‘The guys are gnawing (at) the girl’s heart’.

116. envy je-χʷepse

Valency pattern: ABS_DAT
X: ABS
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-r dirjekterə-m j-e-χʷapse
teacher- abs director- obl 3 sg . io . dat - dyn -envy
‘The teacher envies the director.’

117. be angry fe-gʷəbžə

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r ə-šəpχʷə-me a-fe-gʷəbžə-r-ep
girl- abs 3 sg . pr -sister- obl . pl 3 pl . io - ben -be_angry- dyn - neg
‘The girl is not angry with her sisters.’

118. be surprised ʁe.ṣ̂eʁʷe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m ṣ̂ʷəhaftənə-r ə-ʁe-ṣ̂eʁʷa-ʁ
guy- obl gift- abs 3 sg . erg - caus -miracle- pst
‘The guy was surprised at this gift.’

119. love (tea) jə-č̣ʼese

Valency pattern: POSS_ABS
X: POSS
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-m čʼajə-r jə-č̣ʼas
girl- obl tea- abs 3 sg . pr + poss -favourite
‘The girl loves tea.’

120. enjoy *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

121. want fe-je

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
mə tjeljefonə-m sə-fa-j-ep
this phone- obl 1 sg . abs - ben -be- neg
‘I do not want this phone.’

122. have a grudge fe-gʷəbžə.ʁe

Valency pattern: ABS_BEN
X: ABS
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
pŝaŝe-r č̣ʼale-m fe-gʷəbžə-ʁ
girl- abs guy- obl ben -be_angry- res
‘The girl holds a grudge against the guy.’

123. take offence zə-fe-ʁe.gʷəse

Valency pattern: ERG_BEN
X: ERG
Y: BEN
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-m zə-f-jə-ʁe-gʷəsa-ʁ
guy- obl girl- obl rfl . abs - ben -3 sg . erg - caus -take_offence- pst
‘The guy took offence at the girl.’

124. upset gʷə xe-ʁe.č̣ʼə

Valency pattern: ERG_NominalPossessor
X: ERG
Y: NominalPossessor
Locus: Y
č̣ʼale-m pŝaŝe-m ə-gʷ x-jə-ʁe-č̣ʼə-ʁ
guy- obl girl- obl 3 sg . pr -heart loc : among -3 sg . erg - caus -exit- pst
‘The guy greatly upset the girl.’
Note: Lit. ‘This guy removed the girl’s heart’.

125. marvel ʁe.ṣ̂eʁʷe

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
č̣ʼale-m qale-r ə-ʁe-ṣ̂eʁʷa-ʁ
guy- obl town- abs 3 sg . erg - caus -miracle- pst
‘The guy was impressed by this town.’

126. despise gʷə tje.fe + NEG

Valency pattern: NominalPossessor_ABS
X: NominalPossessor
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-xe-m mə č̣ʼale-r a-gʷ tje-fe-r-ep
girl- pl - obl this guy- abs 3 pl . pr -heart loc : top -fall- dyn - neg
‘The girls despise this guy.’
Note: Lit. ‘This guy does not fall on the girls’ hearts’.

127. get upset gʷəqewe fe-χʷə

Valency pattern: BEN_ABS
X: BEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
sabjəj-xe-r gʷə.qawe t-fe-χʷə-ʁe-x
child- pl - abs misery 1 pl . io - ben -become- pst - pl
‘We got upset because of the children.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

128. get irritated gʷə ʁe.pe

Valency pattern: NominalPossessor_ERG
X: NominalPossessor
Y: ERG
Locus: X
č̣ʼelejeʁaǯʼe-m č̣ʼelejeǯʼaḳʷe-xe-m ə-gʷ a-ʁa-pe
teacher- obl pupil- pl - obl 3 sg . pr -heart 3 pl . erg - caus -suffer
‘The teacher is getting irritated with the pupils.’
Note: Lit. ‘The pupils make the teacher’s heart suffer’.

129. be fond gʷə rjəhə

Valency pattern: NominalPossessor_ABS
X: NominalPossessor
Y: ABS
Locus: X
pŝaŝe-m č̣ʼale-r ə-gʷ r-j-e-hə
girl- obl guy- abs 3 sg . pr -heart loc : cont -3 sg . erg - dyn -carry
‘The girl likes the guy.’
Note: Lit. ‘The girl’s heart carries the guy’.

130. be shy tje-wəč̣ʼətə.ha

Valency pattern: ABS_LOC.TOP
X: ABS
Y: LOC.TOP
Locus: Y
ŝeweẑəje-r zere-c̣əḳʷə-m tj-e-wəč̣ʼətə-ha
guy- abs rel . fct -small- obl loc : top - dyn -be_shy- lat
‘The guy is embarrased about his height.’