Archi

Contributed by Michael Daniel and Bulbul Musaeva.

M.D.'s photo B.M.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2018. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Daniel, Michael & Bulbul Musaeva. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Archi. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on April 4, 2026; last revised on September 14, 2026.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Coordinates: 42.06, 46.87.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Nakh-Daghestanian, genus: Lezgic.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.

Archi, a Lezgic outlier in close contact with two other Nakh-Daghestanian languages, Avar (Avar-Andic) and Lak (Lak), is spoken in several villages in Charoda district. Technically, Archib is an agglomeration of one main village and several former homesteads, The official census of 2010 shows a population of 1,608 people, but since then there has been a sharp decline. Reportedly, not more than 100 families remain in the village on a permanent basis (as of 2026). Several thousands of ethnic Archis live outside the village, but there is no way to assess their language proficiency. The Archis’ neighbours are Laks and Avas, and Archis have traditionally shown a high degree of multilingualism in both languages.

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

In terms of both case marking and gender agreement in the clause, Archi shows ergative patterning; the canonical transitive construction is observed in, e.g. (4). The ergative construction is often obscured by the binominative construction involving the converb of the lexical verb and the auxiliary, as in (15, 34, 43, 91), where the converb agrees with the P-argument (like in the canonical transitive construction in (4)); the agreement on the auxiliary is controlled by the A-argument (unlike in the canonical transitive construction in (4)); and both arguments are in the nominative. Causativization is periphrastic by means of ‘do’ (e.g. 72), which is also commonly used in complex predicates (e.g. 70). There are several labile verbs, e.g. ‘break’ in (44).

Case system

Archi has the signature Nakh-Daghestanian nominal inflection design. It includes two largely independent paradigms - cases (alias syntactic cases, grammatical cases) and spatial forms (alias spatial cases, locative cases). Archi has ten (grammatical) cases: Nominative (unmarked), Ergative, Genitive, Dative, Comitative, Comparative, Causal 'because of X', Substitutive 'instead of X, on X's behalf', and Equative ‘like X’. Spatial forms are morphologically complex, involving one marker for spatial relation (traditionally called "localization") and one marker for directionality (traditionally called "orientation").

There are six markers for spatial relations: i) location on the horizontal surface of a landmark (‘on the table’, SUP), ii) inside a hollow landmark (‘in the box’, IN), iii) between multiple landmarks ('between trees') or inside a mass ('in the water', INTER), iv) at a human landmark (as in ‘at my parents’ place’, HUMLOC), v) location on a vertical surface with a fixation on it (‘on the wall’, CONT), vi) location under a landmark (‘under the table’, SUB).

Only CONT, SUPER, IN and INTER are present in the dataset, with IN and INTER only present in purely spatial contexts (12, 14, 21, 104). There are six values of directionality: essive (Place; unmarked), lative (Goal, LAT), elative (Source, EL), translative (Path), directive (Direction) and terminative (Limit). Only elative, lative and essive are attested in the dataset. Archi also has a large number of non-bound functional elements that show mixed properties of adverb and adpositions; of all these items, only two show up in the dataset as means of flagging (i.e. postnominally).

There are 16 different flags attested in the data.

Verb lemmas

Citation forms provided in the dataset are infinitives. Archi has a large number of stative predicates, including most property words. Stative predicates lack infinitives; in such cases, the citation form provided equals the root. For the purposes of citation, complex predicates are used as citation form as such. The root of a stative predicate also happens to be the simplest finite form (present durative); cf. (6, 7); though they may also form imperfective converbs and combine with the auxiliary (5).The auxiliary neutrally follows the converb, and Gender 4 / NPL forms of the auxiliary i coalesces with the converb (e.g. 5, 9).

Glossing abbreviations

1, 2, 3, 4 — nominal genders; ADVZ — adverbializer; ATTR — attributive; COM — comitative; COMP — comparative; CONT — spatial domain on a vertical surface with a fixation on it (‘on the wall'); CVB — converb; DAT — dative; DIR — directive; EL — elative; ERG — ergative; EVID — evidential; GEN — genitive; IN — spatial domain inside a hollow landmark ('in the box'); INF — infinitive; INTER — spatial domain between multiple landmarks ('between trees') or inside a mass ('in the water'); IPFV — imperfective; ITER — iterative; LAT — lative; LOC — locative; M — masculine; NEG — negation; NMLZ — nominalization; NOM — nominative; NPL — non-human plural gender; OBL — oblique; PFV — perfective; PL — plural; PN — person name; PTCL — intensifying particle; R — reflexive; SG — singular; SUP — horizontal surface of the landmark as a spatial domain ('on the table').

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain -acːʼar

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM

X: GEN

Y: NOM

Locus: X

patʼimal-li-n	oˁnt	acːʼar-ši
pn - obl - gen	head	4.ache- advz (4.be)
‘Patimat has a headache.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative). Arguably, the NP in the genitive is a clause-level constituent.

2. have (illness) -qˁes

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

patʼimal-li-s	grip	qˁa-li
pn - obl - dat	influenza	4.come. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘Patimat has the flu.’

3. be afraid ʟʼinčʼar

Valency pattern: NOM_COMP

X: NOM

Y: COMP

Locus: Y

patʼimat	gʷači-li-χur	ʟʼinčʼar
pn	dog- obl - comp	be.afraid
‘Patimat is afraid of the dog.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

4. throw kammus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	čʼele	kammu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	stone	throw. pfv
‘Pasha threw a stone.’

5. have enough -aχˁ

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

patʼimal-li-s	arsi	aχˁ-ši
pn - obl - dat	money	4.be.enough- advz (4.be)
‘Patimat has enough money.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

6. resemble ɬːʷaːna

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	ɬːʷaːna	moħommad-li-tːi-k
pn	be.similar	pn - obl - sup - lat
‘Pasha resembles Muhammad.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

7. believe wiχ

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP

X: NOM

Y: SUP

Locus: Y

patʼimat	wiχ	moħommad-li-t
pn	be.trusting	pn - obl - sup
‘Patimat believes Muhammad.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

8. take -χːes

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

patʼimat-li	qʼonqʼ	χːa
pn - obl ( erg )	book	4.take. pfv
‘Patimat took a book.’

9. see -akːus

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

patʼimat-li-s	noʟʼ	akːu-r-ši
pn - obl - dat	house	4.see- ipfv - advz (4.be)
‘Patimat sees a house.’

10. influence *

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

11. encounter -χos

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

patʼimat-li-s	moħommad	χu
pn - obl - dat	pn	1.find. pfv
‘Patimat encountered Muhammad.’

12. enter -čʼubus

Valency pattern: NOM_IN.LAT

X: NOM

Y: IN.LAT

Locus: Y

moħommad	noʟʼ-a-k	čʼutːe
pn	house- in - lat	1.enter. pfv
‘Muhammad entered the house.’

13. win -χes

Valency pattern: NOM_COMP

X: NOM

Y: COMP

Locus: Y

paša	χʷa	moħommad-li-χur
pn	1.win. pfv	pn - obl - comp
‘Pasha beat Muhammad.’

14. go out čʼelleši o-ʟmus

Valency pattern: NOM_IN.EL

X: NOM

Y: IN.EL

Locus: Y

paša	tukan-na-š	čʼelle-ši	uʟni
pn	shop- in - el	outside- dir	1.go.out. pfv
‘Pasha went out of the shop.’

15. drive a-kʼas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša	χˁon	b-a<r>kʼu-r-ši	w-i
pn	cow	3-< ipfv >drive- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is driving the cow.’
Note: Binominative construction resolves into transitive.

16. bend boqʼˁos

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	χol	boqʼˁo
pn - obl . m ( erg )	branch	bend. pfv
‘Pasha bent the branch.’

17. tell bos

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT.DIR

X: ERG

Y: CONT.DIR

Locus: Y

paša-mu	moħommad-li-r-ši	bo
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn - obl - cont - dir	say. pfv
‘Pasha told Muhammad.’

18. hold -sas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

patʼimat-li	qʼonqʼ	so-li
pn - obl ( erg )	book	4.take. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘Pasha is holding a book.’
Note: Resultative construction.

19. catch up 'χir -i (PST)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

paša	moħommad-li-s	χir	i-w-di
pn	pn - obl - dat	behind	become-1- pfv
‘Pasha caught up with Muhammad.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (adverbial element + 'become'). The NP in the dative case can be omitted.

20. milk -acas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

patʼimat-li	χˁon	b-acu
pn - obl ( erg )	cow	3-milk. pfv
‘Patimat milked the cow.’

21. reach e-qʼis

Valency pattern: NOM_IN.LAT

X: NOM

Y: IN.LAT

Locus: Y

patʼimat	sːobtːa-k	e-r-di
pn	edge. in - lat	reach-2- pfv
‘Patimat reached the bank.’

22. touch qˁečbos

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

patʼimat-li	čʼeˁn-ni-s	qˁečbo
pn - obl ( erg )	wall- obl - dat	touch. pfv
‘Patimat touched the wall.’

23. fight anχː as

Valency pattern: ERG_COM

X: ERG

Y: COM

Locus: Y

paša-mu	anχː	a-r-ši	i	moħommad-li-ɬːu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	fight	4.do- ipfv - advz	4.be	pn - obl - com
‘Pasha is fighting with Muhammad.’

24. be friends halmaχkul -i

Valency pattern: GEN_COM

X: GEN

Y: COM

Locus: XY

paša-n	halmaχ-kul	i	moħommad-li-ɬːu
pn - gen	friend- nmlz	4.cop	pn - obl - com
‘Pasha is friends with Muhammad.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

25. think -arhas

Valency pattern: NOM_DATxir

X: NOM

Y: DATxir

Locus: Y

paša	w-arhar-ši	w-i	moħommad-li-s	χir
pn	1-think- ipfv - advz	1-be	pn - obl - dat	after
‘Pasha is thinking about Muhammad.’
Note: The NP in the dative case cannot be separated from the “χir” element. The combination of the dative case and “χir” is analyzed as an argument-encoding device.

26. eat -kummus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	aˁnš	kunne
pn - obl . m ( erg )	apple	4.eat. pfv
‘Pasha ate an apple.’

27. fry čʼarqʼas a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	χˁabχˁi	čʼarqʼas	a<b>u
pn - obl . m ( erg )	fish	fry	<3>do. pfv
‘Pasha fried the fish.’

28. wait sa-kːas

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	su<w>kːa-r-ši	w-i	moħommad-li-tːi-k
pn	<1>look- ipfv - advz	1-be	pn - obl - sup - lat
‘Pasha is waiting for Muhammad.’

29. forget e-χmus

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	osːu-b	deqʼˁ	e<b>χni-li
pn - dat	other-3	way	<3>forget. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘Pasha forgot about the other road.’

30. depend -i

Valency pattern: NOM_GENlwana

X: NOM

Y: GENlwana

Locus: Y

pahmu	ʕummul-li-n	ɬːʷaːna	b-ikir
memory	life- obl - gen	according	3-be. iter
‘Memory depends on age.’
Note: ɬːʷaːna functions as a postposition (not separable from the NP).

31. call zappos

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	moħommad	zappo
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn	call. pfv
‘Pasha called Muhammad.’

32. get to know sini

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	moħommad	sin	i<w>tːi	šʷaˁš
pn - dat	pn	know	<1>become. pfv	last.year
‘Pasha got to know Muhammad a year ago.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

33. know sini

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	moħommad	sini
pn - dat	pn	know
‘Pasha knows Muhammad.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

34. play (instrument) da-χis

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša	mandalin	da<b>χi-r-ši	w-i
pn	mandolin	<3>hit- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is playing the mandolin.’
Note: Binominative construction resolves into transitive.

35. avoid -akːus e-qʼas + NEG

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša	moħommad-li-s	w-akːu-s	w-e<r>qʼə-r-ši	w-i-tʼu
pn	pn - obl - dat	1-see- inf	1-< ipfv >reach- ipfv - advz	1-be- neg
‘Pasha avoids Muhammad’ (lit. ‘Pasha tries not to be seen by Muhammad’).
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause.

36. make a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	bomba	a<b>u
pn - obl . m ( erg )	bomba	<3>do. pfv
‘Pasha made a bomb.’

37. make fun iqʼiˁl a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	moħommad	iqʼiˁl	w-a-r-ši	w-i
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn	mock	1-do- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is making fun of Muhammad.’

38. have -i

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM

X: GEN

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-n	mašin	i
pn - gen	car	4.be
‘Pasha has a car.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Arguably, the NP in the genitive is a clause-level constituent.

39. look for -irkːus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša	nakʼəm-mul	irkːu-r-ši	w-i
pn	key- pl	npl -seek- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is looking for his keys.’
Note: Binominative construction resolves into transitive.

40. paint -ɬːubus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	čʼer	be-ɬde
pn - obl . m ( erg )	wall	3-paint. pfv
‘Pasha painted the fence.’

41. bite -eqːʼas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša	gʷači-li	w-eqːʼu
pn	dog- obl ( erg )	1-bite. pfv
‘A dog bit Pasha.’

42. forfeit -itʼuw e-χːas

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša	noʟʼ	i-tʼuw	i<w>χːu
pn	house	4.be- cvb . neg	<1>remain. pfv
‘Pasha lost his house.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause.

43. try to catch -sas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša	gatu	ba-sa-r-ši	w-i
pn	cat	3-catch- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is trying to catch the cat.’
Note: Binominative construction resolves into transitive.

44. break a-qˁas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	kʼuħan	aqˁu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	stick	4.break. pfv
‘Pasha broke a stick.’

45. flatter *

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

46. love (person) ʟʼan

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

moħommad-li-s	patʼimat	ʟʼan-ši	d-i
pn - obl - dat	pn	love- advz	2-be
‘Muhammad loves Patimat.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

47. wave lapːas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

patʼimat-li	gatʼ	lapʼa-r-ši	b-i
pn - obl ( erg )	shawl	wave- ipfv - advz	3-be
‘Pasha is waving a shawl.’

48. dream ʟʼan

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

patʼimat-li-s	noˁš	ʟʼan-ši	b-i
pn - obl - dat	horse	want- advz	3-be
‘Pasha is dreaming of a horse.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

49. wash čučəbos

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	gruška	čučəbo
pn - obl . m ( erg )	cup[ r ]	wash. pfv
‘Pasha washed the cup.’

50. put on -uwʟas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	paˁtːəl	b-uwʟu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	trousers	3-put.on. pfv
‘Pasha put on his trousers.’

51. be called bos

Valency pattern: SUP.LAT_NOM

X: SUP.LAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

jamu-t-mi-tːi-k	kompas	war
this-4- obl - sup - lat	compass	say. ipfv
‘This is called a compass.’
Note: a) This is a transimpersonal construction. b) It is not clear whether the NP in the nominative case shares syntactic properties with other nominative NPs.

52. punish nakazat a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

zari	un	nakazat	u-w-li
i . erg	you. sg ( nom )	punish[ r ]	do. pfv -1- cvb ( evid )
‘I punished you.’

53. attack tʼankʼ bos

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

χːams	χˁabχˁ-du	sa-r-tːu-m-mu-tːi-k	tʼankʼ	bo
bear	fish- pl	npl .catch- ipfv - attr -1- obl . m - sup - lat	jump	say. pfv
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) aː-cʼas

Valency pattern: NOM_ERG(NON.CORE)

X: NOM

Y: ERG(NON.CORE)

Locus: Y

budra	ɬːenne	a<b>cʼu-li
bucket	water. o bl( erg )	<3>fill. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find -χos

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	nakʼəm-mul	χo
pn - dat	key- pl	npl .find. pfv
‘Pasha found his keys.’

56. be short -aχˁ -kes + NEG

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	os	dollar	b-aχˁ	be-ke-r-ši	b-i-tʼu
pn - dat	one	dollar	3-be.sufficient	3-become- ipfv - advz	3-be- neg
‘Pasha is one dollar short.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

57. hate mutʼuši -akːus

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	marin	mu-tʼu-ši	d-akːu-r-ši	d-i
pn - dat	pn	be.good- neg - advz	2-see- ipfv - advz	2-be
‘Pasha hates Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

58. like muši -akːus

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	ja-b	χˁošon	mu-ši	b-akːu-r
pn - dat	this-3	shirt	be.good- advz	3-see- ipfv
‘Pasha likes this shirt.’

59. need kʷatʼ

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	arsi	kʷatʼ-ši	i
pn - dat	money	need- advz	4.be
‘Pasha needs money.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

60. surround kʷekːis

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

šahru	čʼel-li	kʷe<b>k-də-li
town	wall- obl ( erg )	<3>spin- pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain e-χːas

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM

X: GEN

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-n	wijcʼ-a<b>u	dollar	e<b>χːu-li
pn - gen	ten-<3> ptcl	dollar	<3>remain. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘Pasha has ten dollars left.’
Note: Arguably, the NP in the genitive is a clause-level constituent.

62. answer žawab ʟos

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

paša-mu	učitel-li-s	žawab	ʟo
pn - obl . m ( erg )	teacher- obl - dat	answer	4.give. pfv
‘Pasha answered the teacher.’

63. open dabɬas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	bankːa	dabɬu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	jar	open. pfv
‘Pasha opened a jar.’

64. be different χːˁoro

Valency pattern: NOM_COMP

X: NOM

Y: COMP

Locus: Y

b-is	χˁošon	utːo-m-mi-χur	χːˁoro-ši	b-i
3- i . gen	shirt	your-3- obl - comp	be.different- advz	3-be
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind χir e-χːas

Valency pattern: NOM_COMP

X: NOM

Y: COMP

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-χur	χir	i<w>χːu
pn	pn - obl - comp	behind	<1>remain. pfv
‘Pasha fell behind Marina.’
Note: χir is part of the predicate (an adverbial element). The NP in the comparative case can be omitted.

66. plough hijbos

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša	uχ	hija-r-ši	w-i
pn	field	plow- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is ploughing the field.’
Note: Binominative construction resolves into transitive.

67. smell di ca-χas

Valency pattern: SUP.EL_GEN

X: SUP.EL

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

is	kurʁul-če-tːi-š	bənzin-ni-n	di	carχa-r-ši
npl . i . gen	hand. pl - obl . pl - sup - el	gas- obl - gen	smell	4.< ipfv >throw- ipfv - advz (4.be)
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

68. cross a-tʼas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	deqʼˁ	a<b>tʼu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	way	<3>cut. pfv
‘Pasha crossed the road.’

69. sing χabus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	mu-tːu-t	lagum	χabu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	be.good- attr -4	song	sing. pfv
‘Pasha sang a beautiful song.’

70. write ši a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	kaʁər	ši	a<b>u
pn - obl . m ( erg )	paper	write	<3>do. pfv
‘Pasha wrote a letter.’

71. drink cʼabus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	naˁʟʼ	cʼabu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	milk	drink. pfv
‘Pasha drank the milk.’

72. melt -cʼasː a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	tʼeˁčʼu	cʼa-sː	aw
pn - obl . m ( erg )	lead	4.thaw- inf	4.do. pfv
‘Pasha melted a piece of lead.’

73. match tʼalek

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ja-t	qʼˁotʼol	b-is	χːˁašna-s	tʼalek	i
this-4	belt	3- i . gen	dress. obl - dat	correctly	4.be
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

74. leave -ocər a-tis

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	žu-n-u<b>u	šahru	b-ocər	a<b>tːi
pn - obl . m ( erg )	self- gen -<3> ptcl	town	3-leave	<3>let. pfv
‘Pasha left his native city.’

75. cover ca-qˁas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

diwin-ni	obšːi	qʼatːu	noʟʼ	ca<r>qˁa-r-ši
carpet- obl ( erg )	all	down	room	< ipfv >hide- ipfv - advz (4.be)
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember ikʼma -i

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	mu-ši	ikʼm=i	žu-n-tʼu	noʟʼ
pn - dat	be.good- advz	heart. loc =4.be	self. m - gen -4. ptcl	house
‘Pasha remembers his house well.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

77. help kumak a-as

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

paša-mu	marin-ni-s	kumak	a<b>u
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn - obl - dat	help	<3>do. pfv
‘Pasha helped Marina.’

78. understand (language) sini

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	francija-li-n	čʼat	sini
pn - dat	f rance- obl - gen	language	know
‘Pasha understands the French language.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

79. hit (target) ca-χas

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

parəl	noʟʼ-li-s	caχu
lightning	house- obl - dat	4.hit. pfv
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself bi beqˁes

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša-n	močʼor	χːartʼa-r-tːu-t-mi-tː-iš	bi	ba-qˁa-li
pn - gen	beard	shave- ipfv - attr -4- obl - sup - el	blood	3-come. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘There is blood coming off Pasha’s razor.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

81. get stuck e-χmus

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

istəkan	ustul-li-s	eχ-di-li
glass	table- obl - dat	4.climb- pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) o-qːʼˁas

Valency pattern: NOM_COMP

X: NOM

Y: COMP

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-χur	uqːʼˁa
pn	pn - obl - comp	1.lose. pfv
‘Pasha lost to Marina.’

83. be glad χːʷar -kes

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	kaʁal-li-tːi-š	χːʷar	i<w>tːi
pn	paper- obl - sup - el	be.glad	1.become. pfv
‘Pasha was glad about the letter.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

84. speak baˁːbus

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-ɬːu	baˁːbuˁ-r-ši	w-i
pn	pn - obl - com	talk- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is speaking with Marina.’

85. give birth a-as

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

marin-ni-s	wišdu	uw
pn - obl - dat	son	1.do. pfv
‘Marina gave birth to a son.’

86. drop e-kas a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	istəkan	ek-as	aw
pn - obl . m ( erg )	glass	4.fall- inf	4.do. pfv
‘Pasha dropped the glass.’

87. govern doːˁzu

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša	olo	duχːul-li-n	doːˁzu
pn	4.we. gen	village- obl - gen	be.big. attr
‘Pasha runs our village.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

88. miss bazar

Valency pattern: NOM_DATxir

X: NOM

Y: DATxir

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-s	χir	bazar-ši	w-i
pn	pn - obl - dat	behind	be.missing- advz	1-be
‘Pasha misses Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative). The NP in the dative case cannot be separated from the “χir” element. The combination of the dative case and “χir” is analyzed as an argument-encoding device.

89. follow χir sa-kːas

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-s	χir	su<w>kːa-r-ši	w-i
pn	pn - obl - dat	behind	<1>look- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha follows Marina.’
Note: χir is part of the predicate (an adverbial element). The NP in the dative case can be separated from the “χir” element.

90. dismount a-χːˁas

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	noˁši-tːi-š	u<w>χːˁu
pn	horse. obl - sup - el	<1>go.down. pfv
‘Pasha got down from the horse.’

91. listen oj ačas

Valency pattern: ERG_SUP.LAT

X: ERG

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	radio-li-tːi-k	oj	aču-li	w-i
pn	radio- obl - sup - lat	ear	4.throw. pfv - cvb	1-be
‘Pasha is listening to the radio.’
Note: Binominative construction resolves into transitive.

92. obey oj ačas

Valency pattern: ERG_SUP.LAT

X: ERG

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša-mu	buwa-tːi-k	oj	a<r>č-ar
pn - obl . m ( erg )	mother- sup - lat	ear	4.< ipfv >throw- ipfv
‘Pasha listens to his mother.’

93. hear -kos

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	lagum-mul	ko-r-ši
pn - dat	song- pl	npl .hear- ipfv - advz ( npl .be)
‘Pasha hears the music.’

94. mix ɬːo-χˁas

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

imcʼ	neˁʟʼə-ɬːu	ɬːoχˁu-li
honey	milk. obl - com	4.mix. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look sa-kːas

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	doɬːor-če-tːi-k	su<w>kːa-r-ši	w-i
pn	cloud. pl - obl . pl - sup - lat	<1>look- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off -aχːa a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	χːˁošon	b-aχːa	a<b>u
pn - obl . m ( erg )	shirt	3-away	<3>do. pfv
‘Pasha took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) mikʼir -akːus

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	marin	mikʼir	d-akːu-r-ši	d-i
pn - dat	pn	in.the.dream	2-see- ipfv - advz	2-be
‘Pasha dreams about Marina.’

98. agree raˁzi

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

paša	marina-ɬːu	raˁzi	i<w>tːi
pn	pn - com	agree	<1>become. pfv
‘Pasha agreed with Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

99. have a quarrel duʕilas -kes

Valency pattern: GEN_COM

X: GEN

Y: COM

Locus: XY

paša-n	duʕilas	etːi	marin-ni-ɬːu
pn - gen	conflict	4.become. pfv	pn - obl - com
‘Pasha had a quarrel with Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

100. cost -i

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP

X: NOM

Y: SUP

Locus: Y

ja-t	gruška	os	dollal-li-t	i
this-4	mug	one	dollar- obl - sup	4.be
‘This cup costs 1 dollar.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

101. shoot at kammus

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

paša-mu	nacʼa-s	kammu,	ammo	bo-sːo-tʼu
pn - obl . m ( erg )	bird. obl - dat	throw. pfv	but	3-catch. pfv - neg
‘Pasha shot at the bird but he missed’

102. pour a-čas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	pisokʼ	a<b>ču
pn - obl . m ( erg )	sugar[ r ]	<3>throw. pfv
‘Pasha poured the sugar into the cup.’

103. lose -itʼu -kes

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM

X: GEN

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-n	nakʼən	i-tʼ-etːi
pn - gen	key	4.be- neg -4.become. pfv
‘Pasha lost his keys.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

104. sink -oqːʼˁuli -qˁes

Valency pattern: NOM_INTER

X: NOM

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

šaˁtːi-li-n	qʼˁartʼi	ɬːenne-qˁ	oqːʼˁu-li	oqˁa
beam- obl - gen	roller	water. obl - inter	4.go.down. pfv - cvb	4.go. pfv
‘The log sank in the water.’
Note: It is not entirely clear whether the first NP conventionally denotes a wooden log.

105. kill a-čas

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	muħammad	u<w>ču
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn	<1>kill. pfv
‘Pasha killed Muhammad.’

106. hit da-χis

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

paša-mu	muħammad-li-s	daχ-di
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn - obl - dat	4.hit- pfv
‘Pasha hit Muhammad.’

107. kiss hijtbos

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	marin	hijtbo
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn	kiss. pfv
‘Pasha kissed Marina.’

108. read o-ʟmus

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	mu-tːu-t	qʼonqʼ	oʟəni
pn - obl . m ( erg )	be.good- attr -4	book	4.read. pfv
‘Pasha read a good book.’

109. move (bodypart) χːəriχː a-as

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

paša-mu	gon	χːəriχː	a<b>u
pn - obl . m ( erg )	finger	move	<3>do. pfv
‘Pasha moved his finger.’

110. respect qʼimat a-as

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN

X: ERG

Y: GEN

Locus: Y

paša-mu	marin-ni-n	qʼimat	b-a-r
pn - obl . m ( erg )	pn - obl - gen	respect	3-do- ipfv
‘Pasha respects Marina.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level constituent.

111. be squeamish ʟʼan -kes + NEG

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša-s	qʼˁabʁˁ-du-t	gel	kʼočʼo	ʟʼan	ke-r-tʼu
pn - dat	be.dirty- attr -4	cup	dish	want	4.become- ipfv - neg
‘Pasha does not like dirty dishes.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence. Non-verbal predicate (stative).

112. be content raˁzi

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	raˁzi-ši	w-i	žu-n-uwwu	laha-tːi-š
pn	agree- advz	1-be	self. m - gen -1. ptcl	child- sup - el
‘Pasha is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

113. fall in love ʟʼan

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	marin	ʟʼan	e<r>tːi-li
pn - dat	pn	want	<2>become. pfv - cvb ( evid )
‘Pasha fell in love with Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

114. trust wiχ

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP

X: NOM

Y: SUP

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-t	wiχ
pn	pn - obl - sup	be.trusting
‘Pasha trusts Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

115. sympathise tʼibir

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	žu-n-aru	ijtːur	tʼibir
pn - dat	self. m - gen -<2> ptcl	mother	feel.pity
‘Pasha sympathises with his mother.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

116. envy maˁrš

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP

X: NOM

Y: SUP

Locus: Y

paša	marina-t	maˁrš
pn	pn - sup	be.envious
‘Pasha envies Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

117. be angry qʼˁara-s e-χmus

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	marin-ni-tːi-k	qʼˁara-s	w-e<r>χi-r-ši	w-i
pn	pn - obl - sup - lat	be.angry- inf	1-< ipfv >rise- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is angry with Marina.’

118. be surprised χːi -kes

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	χːi	i<w>tːi	ja-b	sːijʁat-li-tːi-š
pn	be.surprised	<1>become. pfv	this-3	present- obl - sup - el
‘Pasha was surprised at this gift.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

119. love (tea) ʟʼan

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša-s	čij	ʟʼan	ke-r
pn - dat	tea	want	4.become- ipfv
‘Pasha liked the tea.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence. Non-verbal predicate (stative).

120. enjoy χːubus

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša	haˁršːa-r-tːu-t	čij	χːu-r-ši	w-i
pn	boiling- ipfv - attr -4	tea	drink- ipfv - advz	1-be
‘Pasha is drinking hot tea (making pauses between gulps).’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

121. want ʟʼan

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	macːʼa-tːu-t	təlipon	ʟʼan-ši
pn - dat	be.new- attr -4	phone[ r ]	want- advz (4.be)
‘Pasha wants a new mobile phone.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

122. have a grudge qʼˁaras

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	qʼˁara-r-ši	w-i	marin-ni-tːi-k
pn	be.angry- ipfv - advz	1-be	pn - obl - sup - lat
‘Pasha holds a grudge against Marina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

123. take offence a-χˁas

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	u<w>χˁu-li	marin-ni-tːi-š
pn	<1>become.mad- cvb	pn - obl - sup - el
‘Pasha took offence at Marina.’

124. upset ikʼʷ aqˁas

Valency pattern: SUP.EL_GEN

X: SUP.EL

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

paša-tːi-š	marin-ni-n	ikʼʷ	aqˁu
pn - sup - el	pn - obl - gen	heart	4.break. pfv
‘Pasha greatly upset Marina.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

125. marvel χːi -kes

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	χːi	i<w>tːi	ja-b	šahru-li-tːi-š
pn	be.surprised	<1>become. pfv	that-3	town- obl - sup - el
‘Pasha was impressed by this town.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

126. despise ʟʼarak a-as

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

paša-mu	ʟʼarak	d-a-r-ši	d-i	marin
pn - obl . m ( erg )	below	2-do- ipfv - advz	2-be	pn
‘Pasha humiliates Marina.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

127. get upset pašman

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	pašman	i<w>tːi	žu-n-uwwu	laha-tːi-š
pn	be.sad	<1>become. pfv	self. m - gen -1. ptcl	child. obl - sup - el
‘Pasha got upset because of his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).

128. get irritated qʼˁaras

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.LAT

X: NOM

Y: SUP.LAT

Locus: Y

paša	qʼˁara-r-ši	w-i	žu-n-u<r>u	laha-tːi-k
pn	be.angry- ipfv - advz	1-be	self. m - gen -<2> ptcl	child. obl - sup - lat
‘Pasha is getting irritated with his daughter.’

129. be fond muši -akːus

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

paša-s	marin	mu-ši	d-akːu-r-ši	d-i
pn - dat	pn	be.good- advz	2-see- ipfv - advz	2-be
‘Pasha is fond of Marina.’

130. be shy libχˁ

Valency pattern: NOM_SUP.EL

X: NOM

Y: SUP.EL

Locus: Y

paša	žu-n-tʼu	tʼi-kul-li-tːi-š	libχˁ	kʷer
pn	self. m - gen -4. ptcl	be.small- nmlz - obl - sup - el	feel.embarrassed	1.become. ipfv
‘Pasha is embarrassed about his height.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (stative).