BivalTyp

Dargwa (Itsari)

Contributed by Rasul Mutalov

R.M.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2018 and then revised in 2024 and 2025. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation. Nina Sumbatova has greatly contributed to the interlinearization and interpretation of the data.

How to cite

Mutalov, Rasul. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Dargwa (Itsari). In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on November 11, 2023; last revised on April 24, 2025.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Like other languages of the Nakh-Dagestanian family, Itsari Dargwa is a morphologically ergative language, although many syntactic processes follow the nominative-accusative pattern. It is a basically left-branching language with relatively free word order. Itsari shows rich agreement both in gender/number (nominal class) and person. Itsari Dargwa exhibits rich agglutinative morphology both in nominal and verbal domain.

Case system

The grammatical cases include the absolutive, ergative, genitive, comitative, contentive, and instrumental. A remarkable feature of the Itsari Dargwa case system is the absence of a dedicated dative case. The corresponding functions are performed by the superlative case (see below). The basic markers of grammatical cases are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Markers of grammatical cases in Itsari Dargwa

case marker
Absolutive unmarked
Ergative -li/-lli
Genitive -la/-lla
Comitative -cːilli
Contentive -čilla
Instrumental -ibli

The locative (spatial) forms express two spatial categories: localization and orientation. Itsari has five localizations and four orientations, whose combinations result in 20 locative case forms. The localization markers are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Localization markers in Itsari Dargwa

localization marker
SUPER ‘on’ -j
SUB ‘under’ -gu
ANTE ‘in front of’ -sa
POST ‘behind’ -ha
IN ‘inside’ -cːi (or irregular)

The four orientations include lative (unmarked), essive, elative and directional (allative). When unaccompanied by an orientation marker, locative forms denote the motion towards a location. The essive orientation (stative position) is marked by gender agreement suffix, which follows the localization morpheme. The elative orientation (motion from the object) is expressed by adding the suffix -r (-r-tːal/-r-tːalli, in free variation); the directional orientation means motion towards the object without reaching it and is expressed by the combination of a gender marker and the suffix -al/-alli.

Verb lemmas

Itsari Dargwa does not have infinitive forms. The typical functions of the infinitive are performed by the subjunctive forms, which inflect for person/number. For citation, we use the 3rd person subjunctive forms (marked by -araj/-anaj in the intransitive verbs, -uj in the transitive verbs). For the roots that have aspectual pairs we give the aspectual variant that is used in the corresponding example. The verbs that agree in gender are cited with the N (neuter) gender marker.

Glossing abbreviations

ABS — absolutive; ADV — adverbializer; ANTE — localization ‘in front of’; AOR — aorist; ATR — attributive; BEHIND — preverb ‘behind’; CAUS — causative; COM — comitative; CONT — contentive; COP — copula; CVB — converb; DOWN — preverb ‘down’; EL — elative; ERG — ergative; EXIST — existential copula; F — feminine; GEN — genitive; HAB — habitual; IN — localization ‘inside’; IN.HANDS — preverb ‘in hands’; INSIDE — preverb ‘inside’; IPFV — imperfective; LAT — lative; LV — light verb; M — masculine; N — neuter; NEG — negative; NMLZ — nominalization; NPL — non-human plural; OBL — oblique; ON — preverb ‘on’; OUTSIDE — preverb ‘outside’; PFV — perfective; PL — plural; PN — person name; POST — localization ‘behind’; PRS — present; PTCP — participle; SUB — localization ‘under’; SUBJ — subjunctive; SUPER — localization ‘on’; THITHER — preverb 'thither'; UNDER — preverb ‘under’; UP — preverb ‘up’.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain icː-araj

Valency pattern: GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la bek' icː-a=ca-b
pn - gen head( abs ) ache. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘Islam has a headache.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

2. have (illness) B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam beža-la w-ih-ub=ca-w
pn ( abs ) flu- gen m -become. pfv - aor = cop - m
‘Islam has the flu.’

3. be afraid uruχː-B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_ANTE.EL
X: ABS
Y: ANTE.EL
Locus: Y
Islam χːʷe-l-sa-r uruχː-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn ( abs ) dog- obl - ante - el fear-( m ) lv . ipfv - cvb = cop - m
‘Islam is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw ix-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il qːarqːa ix-ub
pn - erg stone( abs ) throw. pfv - aor
‘Islam threw a stone.’

5. have enough či-hatː-iq-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j arc či-hatː-iq-a=ca-d
pn - obl - super ( lat ) money( abs ) on - up -suffice. ipfv - prs = cop - npl
‘Islam has enough money.’

6. resemble meš-ci ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-j meš-ci=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) similar- atr = cop - m
‘Islam resembles Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.

7. believe či-B-iχː-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-j či-w-iχː-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) on - m -believe. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam believes Nadir.’

8. take hatː-asː-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il žuz hatː-asː-ib
pn - erg book( abs ) up -take. pfv - aor
‘Islam took a book.’

9. see či-B-ig-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il qal či-b-ig-a=ca-b
pn - erg house( abs ) on - n -see. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘Islam sees a house.’

10. influence asar B-irq'-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
d-eːrč'-ib dus-m-a-lli ʕaˤq'lu-li-j asar b-irq'-u
npl -pass. pfv - aor year- pl - obl - erg mind- obl - super ( lat ) influence( abs ) n -make. ipfv - prs . hab
‘The years one has lived affect one’s mind.’

11. encounter sːukː-sa-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j Nadir sːukː-sa-w-ič-ib
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn ( abs ) encounter- ante - m - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam encountered Nadir.’

12. enter kːʷi-ha-B-uq-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.LAT
X: ABS
Y: IN.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam qil kːʷi-ha-wq-un
pn ( abs ) house. in ( lat ) inside - up -( m )go. pfv - aor
‘Islam entered the house.’

13. win či-B-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-r či-w-w-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) pn - obl -( super ) el on - m - m -be. pfv - aor
‘Islam beat Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

14. go out tːura-B-uq-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.EL
X: ABS
Y: IN.EL
Locus: Y
Islam qili-rtːal tːura-wq-un
pn ( abs ) house. in - el outside -( m )go. pfv - aor
‘Islam went out of the house.’

15. drive tːura-aʁ-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il q'ʷaˤl tːura-ʕaˤʁ-ib
pn - erg cow( abs ) outside -drive. pfv - aor
‘Islam is driving the cow.’

16. bend B-aˤlč'-aq-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il q'aˤli b-aˤlč'-aq-un
pn - erg branch( abs ) n -bend. pfv - caus - aor
‘Islam bent the branch.’

17. tell B-urs-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_IN.LAT
X: ERG
Y: IN.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il Nadir-ri-cːi b-urs-ib
pn - erg pn - obl - in ( lat ) n -tell. pfv - aor
‘Islam told Nadir.’

18. hold kʷi-B-uc-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il žuz kʷi-b-uc-ib=ca-b
pn - erg book( abs ) in . hands - n -hold. pfv - aor = cop - n
‘Islam is holding a book.’

19. catch up tːi-B-eːʁ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_POST.LAT
X: ABS
Y: POST.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-reh tːi-w-eːʁ-ib
pn ( abs ) pn - obl + post ( lat ) behind - m -catch_up. pfv - aor
‘Islam caught up with Nadir.’

20. milk B-ircː-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il q'ʷaˤl b-ircː-ib
pn - erg cow( abs ) n -milk. pfv - aor
‘Islam milked the cow.’

21. reach B-eːʁ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_POST.LAT
X: ABS
Y: POST.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam dum-leh w-eːʁ-ib
pn ( abs ) edge- obl + post ( lat ) m -reach- aor
‘Islam reached the bank.’

22. touch tːi-B-B-aˤq-aˤraj

Valency pattern: ABS_POST.LAT
X: ABS
Y: POST.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam lac-leh tːi-w-w-aˤq-ib
pn ( abs ) wall- obl + post ( lat ) behind - m - m -touch. pfv - aor
‘Islam touched the wall.’

23. fight ha-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-cːilli he-jč-ib=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - com up -( m )fight. pfv - aor = cop - m
‘Islam is fighting with Nadir.’

24. be friends juldaš ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ra juldaš ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - gen friend( abs ) cop - m
‘Islam is friends with Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.

25. think pikri-B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
Islam Madina-li-jčilla pikri-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - cont thought-( m ) lv . ipfv - cvb = cop - m
‘Islam is thinking about Madina.’

26. eat B-erk-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il hinci b-erk-un
pn - erg apple( abs ) n -eat. pfv - aor
‘Islam ate an apple.’

27. fry B-erc'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il baliqː b-erc'-ib
pn - erg fish( abs ) n -fry. pfv - aor
‘Islam fried the fish.’

28. wait tːi-ka-B-ig-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_POST.LAT
X: ABS
Y: POST.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-reh tːi-ke-jž-ib=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl + post ( lat ) behind - down -( m )wait. pfv - aor = cop - m
‘Islam is waiting for Nadir.’

29. forget qum-eːrt-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_CONT
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: CONT
Locus: XY
Islam-li-j cara xːun-ni-jčilla qum-eːrt-ur
pn - obl - super ( lat ) other road- obl - cont forget- lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam forgot about the other road.’

30. depend B-ič:-aq-uj

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.EL
X: ABS
Y: IN.EL
Locus: Y
ʕaˤq'lu ʕuˤmru-la dus-m-a-cːi-r b-ikːʷ-il=ca-b
mind( abs ) life- gen year- pl - obl - in - el n -want. ipfv - cvb = cop - n
‘Memory depends on age.’

31. call waˤħ-B-erk'-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_IN.LAT
X: ERG
Y: IN.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il Nadir-ri-cːi waˤħ-b-erč'-ib
pn - erg pn - obl - in ( lat ) call- n - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam called Nadir.’

32. get to know taˤniš-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-cːilli ca dusː sar taˤniš-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - com one year- abs before acquaintance-( m ) lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam got to know Nadir a year ago.’

33. know B-uχː-u (нерегулярный глагол, презенс)

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j Nadir uχː-u
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn ( abs ) ( m )know. ipfv - prs . hab
‘Islam knows Nadir.’
Note: Irregular verb. Citation form is the present tense form.

34. play (instrument) B-urq-uˤj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il gitara b-urq-aˤ=ca-b
pn - erg guitar( abs ) n -play. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘Islam is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid gu-r-B-irxː-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_ANTE.EL
X: ABS
Y: ANTE.EL
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-sa-r gu-r-irxː-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - ante - el sub - el -( m )hide. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam avoids Nadir.’

36. make B-arq'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il bomba b-aˤrq'-ib
pn - erg bomb( abs ) n -make. pfv - aor
‘Islam made a bomb.’

37. make fun dukalt'-n-a-lli B-irq'-a-raj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LATchi
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LATchi
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-j či-w dukalt'-n-a-lli w-irq'-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) on - m mockery- pl - obl - erg m -do. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam is making fun of Nadir.’

38. have te-B

Valency pattern: GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la mašin te-b
pn - gen car( abs ) exist - n
‘Islam has a car.’
Note: Non-verbal (existential) predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.

39. look for ubc'-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_POST.EL
X: ABS
Y: POST.EL
Locus: Y
Islam umx-n-a-ha-r ubc'-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) key- pl - obl - post - el look_for. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam is looking for his keys.’

40. paint B-erxː-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il χːaˤr b-erxː-ur
pn - erg fence( abs ) n -paint. pfv - aor
‘Islam painted the fence.’

41. bite q'ac'-či-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-li-j χːʷe q'ac'-či-b-ič-ib
pn - obl - super ( lat ) dog( abs ) bite- on - n - lv . pfv - aor
‘A dog bit Islam.’

42. forfeit katː-elg-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_akkwal
X: ABS
Y: akkwal
Locus: Y
Islam qal akːʷ-al katː-elg-un
pn ( abs ) house( abs ) neg . cop - adv down -remain. pfv - aor
‘Islam lost his house.’

43. try to catch B-urc-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il mazi b-urc-a=ca-b
pn - erg cat( abs ) n -catch. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘Islam is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break B-elq'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il dirxːa b-elq'-un
pn - erg stick( abs ) n -break. pfv - aor
‘Islam broke a stick.’

45. flatter gap-B-irq'-uj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-il Madina gap-r-irq'-a=ca-r
pn - erg pn ( abs ) praise- f -do. ipfv - prs = cop - f
‘Islam is praising Madina.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

46. love (person) B-ičː-aq-uj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j Madina r-ikːʷ-il=ca-r
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn ( abs ) f -want. ipfv - cvb = cop - f
‘Islam loves Madina.’

47. wave hak'-B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_ERG
X: ABS
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
Islam deškːan-ni hak'-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn ( abs ) handkerchief- erg wave-( m ) lv . ipfv - cvb = cop - m
‘Islam is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream pikri-B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
Islam mašin-ni-jčilla pikri-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn ( abs ) car- obl - cont thought-( m ) lv . ipfv - cvb = cop - m
‘Islam is dreaming of a car.’

49. wash B-irc-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il baʁdaʁ b-irc-ib
pn - erg cup( abs ) n -wash. pfv - aor
‘Islam washed the cup.’

50. put on či-ah-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il wačag či-ah-ur
pn - erg trousers( abs ) on -put_on. pfv - aor
‘Islam put on his trousers.’

51. be called B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS(NO.AGR)
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS(NO.AGR)
Locus: XY
iž cik'al-li-j kompas b-ik'ʷ-ar
this thing- obl - super ( lat ) compass( abs ) n -say. ipfv - prs . hab
‘This thing is called a compass.’
Note: Transimpersonal construction.

52. punish B-it-uj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-il durħuˤ w-it-ib
pn - erg boy( abs ) m -beat. pfv - aor
‘Islam beat his son.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

53. attack či-B-u:q-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
sːika baliqːči-li-j či-b-u:q-un
bear( abs ) fisherman- obl - super ( lat ) on - n -attack. pfv - aor
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) B-ic'-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
badra hin-na b-ic'-ib
bucket( abs ) water- gen n -fill. pfv - aor
‘The bucket filled with water.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

55. find B-arkː-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il umx-ni d-arčː-ib
pn - erg key- pl npl -find. pfv - aor
‘Islam found his keys.’

56. be short či-hatː-iq-araj + NEG

Valency pattern: GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la ca manat či-hatː-iq-a-tːi akːu
pn - gen one( abs ) manat( abs ) on - up -suffice. ipfv - prs - cvb neg . cop
‘Islam is one manat short.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.

57. hate či-B-ag-uj a-B-ič:-aq-uj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j Nadir či-w-ag-uj e-jčː-aq-u
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn ( abs ) on - m -see. pfv - subj .3 neg -( m )want. ipfv - caus - prs . hab
‘Islam hates Nadir.’

58. like B-ičː-aq-uj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j iž kːurti b-ičː-aq-u
pn - obl - super ( lat ) this( abs ) shirt( abs ) n -want. ipfv - caus - prs . hab
‘Islam likes this shirt.’

59. need ħaˤžat-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j arc ħaˤžat-d-ič-ib=ca-d
pn - obl - super ( lat ) money( abs ) need- npl - lv . pfv = cop - npl
‘Islam needs money.’

60. surround alawg-B-arq'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šahar lic-r-a-lli alawg-b-aˤrq'-ib=ca-b
town( abs ) wall- pl - obl - erg around- n -do. pfv - aor = cop - n
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain B-ig-al (нерегулярный глагол, презенс)

Valency pattern: GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la wec' dollar d-igal
pn - gen ten dollar( abs ) npl -remain. ipfv . prs
‘Islam has ten dollars left.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Irregular verb. Citation form is the present tense form.

62. answer žawab B-iːkː-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il učitil-li-j žawab b-iːčː-ib
pn - erg teacher- obl - super ( lat ) answer( abs ) n -give. pfv - aor
‘Islam answered the teacher.’

63. open ač-B-arq'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il pːank'a ač-b-aˤrq'-ib
pn - erg can( abs ) open- n -do. pfv - aor
‘Islam opened a can.’

64. be different dik'ar-ci ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
di-la kːurti i-la-ci-li-r dik'ar-ci ca-b
i - gen shirt( abs ) you- gen - atr - obl -( super ) el different- atr cop - n
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.

65. fall behind helga-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-r helga-ič-ib
pn ( abs ) pn - obl -( super ) el fall_behind-( m ) lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam fell behind Nadir.’

66. plough B-alc-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il qu b-alc-a=ca-b
pn - erg field( abs ) n -plough. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘Islam is ploughing the field.’

67. smell kːʷaˤʕ le-B

Valency pattern: POSTtti_GEN
X: POSTtti
Y: GEN
Locus: XY
di-la naˤqː-b-a-ha tːi-b binzin-na kːʷaˤʕ le-b
i - gen hand- pl - obl - post behind - n gasoline- gen smell( abs ) exist - n
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.

68. cross B-u:q-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_GENtesal
X: ABS
Y: GENtesal
Locus: Y
Islam xːun-na te-šːal u:q-un
pn ( abs ) road- gen that-side ( m )cross. pfv - aor
‘Islam crossed the road.’
Note: In this construction, "tešːal" functions as a postposition.

69. sing B-elč'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il čːakːʷa dalaj b-elč'-un
pn - erg beautiful song( abs ) n -sing. pfv - aor
‘Islam sang a beautiful song.’

70. write B-elk'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il kaʁar b-elk'-un
pn - erg letter( abs ) n -write. pfv - aor
‘Islam wrote a letter.’

71. drink B-erčː-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il nejg d-erčː-ib
pn - erg milk( abs ) npl -drink. pfv - aor
‘Islam drank the milk.’

72. melt B-ac'-aq-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il ʁurʁašin-na but'a b-ac'-aq-ib
pn - erg lead- gen piece( abs ) n -melt. pfv - caus - aor
‘Islam melted a piece of lead.’

73. match B-al-B-irk-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
hejž irži di-la agʷa-li-j b-al-b-irk-a=ca-b
this( abs ) belt( abs ) i - gen dress- obl - super ( lat ) n -together- n -fall. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’

74. leave gu-B-B-at-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il cin-na šahar gu-b-b-at-ur
pn - erg self- gen town( abs ) sub - n - n -leave. pfv - aor
‘Islam left his native city.’

75. cover B-uc-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
t'amsː-il le<b>il č'aˤbar b-uc-ib=ca-b
carpet- erg all< n > floor( abs ) n -catch. pfv - aor = cop - n
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember han-B-ig-al (нерегулярный глагол, презенс)

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j qal ʕaˤħ-il han-b-ig-al
pn - obl - super ( lat ) house( abs ) good- adv remember- n - lv . ipfv - prs
‘Islam remembers the house well.’
Note: Irregular verb. Citation form is the present tense form.

77. help kumek B-arq'-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il Nadir-ri-j kumek b-aˤrq'-ib
pn - erg pn - obl - super ( lat ) help( abs ) n -do. pfv - aor
‘Islam helped Nadir.’

78. understand (language) irʁ-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il francuz-a-lla ʁaj irʁ-a=ca-d
pn - erg f renchman- obl - gen language( abs ) understand. ipfv - prs = cop - npl
‘Islam understands French.’

79. hit (target) či-ka-B-aˤq-uj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
qal-li-j c'a či-ka-tː-aˤq-ib
house- obl - super ( lat ) fire( abs ) on - down - npl -hit- aor
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself ka-B-ičː-uj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-la daˤʕ mut'rusː-il ka-tː-ičː-ib
pn - gen face( abs ) razor- erg on - npl -cut. pfv - aor
‘The razor cut Islam’s face.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

81. get stuck či-ka-B-asː-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
istːikan ust'ul-li-j či-ka-b-asː-un=ca-b
glass( abs ) table- obl - super ( lat ) on - down - n -smear. pfv - aor = cop - n
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) gu-B-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-r gu-w-w-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) pn - obl -( super ) el sub - m - m -be- aor
‘Islam lost to Nadir.’

83. be glad razij-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam kaʁar-ri-j razij-w-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) letter- obl - super ( lat ) joy- m - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam was glad about the letter.’

84. speak ʁaj-B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-cːilli ʁaj-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - com conversation-( m ) lv . ipfv - cvb = cop - m
‘Islam is speaking with Nadir.’

85. give birth B-arq'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Madina-l durħuˤ w-aˤrq'-ib
pn - erg son( abs ) m -make. pfv - aor
‘Madina gave birth to a son.’

86. drop kʷi-r-B-ič-aq-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il istːikan kʷi-r-b-ič-aˤq-ib
pn - erg glass( abs ) in . hands - el - n -fall. pfv - caus - aor
‘Islam dropped the glass.’

87. govern χːula-ci ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam nišːa-la šːi-la χːula-ci ca-w
pn ( abs ) we- gen village- gen big- atr cop - m
‘Islam runs our village.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.

88. miss B-et'-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_POST.EL
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: POST.EL
Locus: XY
Islam-li-j Madina-le-he-r b-et'-ib=ca-b
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn - obl - post - el n -miss. pfv - aor = cop - n
‘Islam misses Madina.’

89. follow tːi-B-ax-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_POST.LAT
X: ABS
Y: POST.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-reh tːi-w-ax-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl + post ( lat ) behind - m -go. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam follows Nadir.’

90. dismount či-r-ka-B-uq-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
Islam jaˤbu-li-r či-r-ka-wq-un
pn ( abs ) horse- obl -( super ) el on - el - down -( m )climb. pfv - aor
‘Islam got down from the horse.’

91. listen gu-lik'-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam radiwa-li-j gu-lik'-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) radio- obl - super ( lat ) under -listen. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam is listening to radio.’

92. obey gu-lik'-anaj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam waba-j gu-lik'-an
pn ( abs ) mother- super ( lat ) under -listen. ipfv - prs . hab
‘Islam always listens to his mother.’

93. hear deh B-iq'-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN
X: ERG
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam-il maq'am-t-a-lla deh b-iq'-a=ca-b
pn - erg tune- pl - obl - gen sound( abs ) n -hear. ipfv - prs = cop - n
‘Islam hears the music.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

94. mix ʁudur-ha-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
waza nejg-il-cːilli ʁudur-ha-b-ič-ib
honey( abs ) milk- obl - com mix- up - n - lv . pfv - aor
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look war-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam qːir-b-a-j war-ih-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) cloud- pl - obl - super ( lat ) look-( m ) lv . ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off či-r-ix-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il kːurtːi či-r-ix-ub
pn - erg shirt( abs ) on - el -throw. pfv - aor
‘Islam took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) mižer-ka-B-ircː-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam Madina-li-j mižer-k-eːrcː-ar
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) dream- down -stand_up. ipfv - prs . hab
‘Madina dreams about Islam.’

98. agree razij-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam Madina-l b-urs-ib-il-li-j razij-w-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) pn - erg n -say. pfv - aor - nmlz - obl - super ( lat ) joy- m - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam agreed with what Madina said.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

99. have a quarrel ha-B-ik-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-cːilli he-jč-ib=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - com up -( m )quarrel. pfv - aor = cop - m
‘Islam had a quarrel with Nadir.’

100. cost ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
hejž baʁdaʁ ca dollar-ri-j ca-b
this( abs ) cup( abs ) one dollar- obl - super ( lat ) cop - n
‘This cup costs one dollar.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.

101. shoot at tupang ix-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il ʕaˤħliq'aˤn-ni-j tupang ix-ub
pn - erg bird- obl - super ( lat ) gun throw. pfv - aor
‘Islam shot at the bird.’

102. pour B-iː-ka-B-ix-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il čakar b-iː-ka-b-ix-ub
pn - erg sugar( abs ) n - thither - down - n -throw. pfv - aor
‘Islam poured the sugar.’

103. lose B-it-aq-aq-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il umx-ni d-it-aˤq-aˤq-ib
pn - erg key- pl ( abs ) npl -lose- lv . pfv - caus - aor
‘Islam lost his keys.’

104. sink gu-B-erqː-ar-aj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUB.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUB.LAT
Locus: Y
paq'a hin-ni-gu gu-b-erqː-ib
log( abs ) water- obl - sub ( lat ) under - n -carry. pfv - aor
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill ka-B-ix-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il Nadir ke-jx-ub
pn - erg pn ( abs ) on -( m )throw. pfv - aor
‘Islam killed Nadir.’

106. hit B-aˤq-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il Nadir-ri-j b-aˤq-ib
pn - erg pn - obl - super ( lat ) n -hit. pfv - aor
‘Islam hit Nadir.’

107. kiss mesa B-iːkː-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il Madina-li-j mesa b-iːčː-ib
pn - erg pn - obl - super ( lat ) kiss( abs ) n -give. pfv - aor
‘Islam kissed Madina.’

108. read B-elč'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il tamaša-la žuz b-elč'-un
pn - erg interest- gen book( abs ) n -read. pfv - aor
‘Islam read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) hak'-B-arq'-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il t'upː hak'-b-aˤrq'-ib
pn - erg finger( abs ) move- n - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam moved his finger.’

110. respect ħurmat B-irq'-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN
X: ERG
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam-il Nadir-ra ħurmat b-irq'-u
pn - erg pn - gen respect( abs ) n -do. ipfv - prs . hab
‘Islam respects Nadir.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

111. be squeamish a-B-ičː-aq-uj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-li-j d-aˤš-un t'alħaˤna a-d-ičː-aq-u
pn - obl - super ( lat ) npl -make_dirty. pfv - aor ( ptcp ) dishes( abs ) neg - npl -love. ipfv - caus - prs . hab
‘Islam dislikes dirty dishes.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

112. be content razi-li ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam cin-na durħuˤ-li-j razi-li ca-w
pn ( abs ) self- gen son- obl - super ( lat ) joy- adv cop - m
‘Islam is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love dikːa-B-ixː-uj

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPER.LAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il Madina-li-j dikːa-d-išː-ib=ca-d
pn - erg pn - obl - super ( lat ) love- npl - lv . pfv - aor = cop - npl
‘Islam fell in love with Madina.’

114. trust či-B-iχː-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Madina-li-j či-w-iχː-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) on - m -believe. ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam trusts Madina.’

115. sympathise urk'ec'i-či-B-ulq-anaj

Valency pattern: GEN_SUPER.LAT
X: GEN
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: XY
Islam-la cin-na waba-j urk'ec'i-či-d-ulq-a=ca-d
pn - gen self- gen mother- super ( lat ) pity- on - npl - lv . ipfv - prs = cop - npl
‘Islam sympathises with his mother.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

116. envy ʕaˤsi-li ca-B

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam Nadir-ri-j ʕaˤsi-li ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) angry- adv cop - m
‘Islam is discontent with Nadir.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

117. be angry q'uc'-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-j q'uc'-ih-ub=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) anger-( m ) lv . pfv - aor = cop - m
‘Islam is angry with Nadir.’
Note: Non-trivial citation form.

118. be surprised tamaša-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam hel žaˤqːrum-li-j tamaša-w-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) this gift- obl - super ( lat ) surprise- m - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam was surprised at this gift.’

119. love (tea) B-ičː-aq-uj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j čaˤj d-ičː-aq-u
pn - obl - super ( lat ) tea( abs ) npl -want. ipfv - caus - prs . hab
‘Islam loves tea.’

120. enjoy ħaˤjran-B-irq'-uj

Valency pattern: ABS_ERG
X: ABS
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
Islam d-uc'ar čaˤj-il ħaˤjran-w-irq'-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) npl -hot tea- erg fascination- m - lv . ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam enjoys hot tea.’

121. want B-ičː-aq-uj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j sːakːa telepun b-ikːʷ-il=ca-b
pn - obl - super ( lat ) new telephone( abs ) n -want. ipfv - cvb = cop - n
‘Islam wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge ʕaˤsi-li ca-B

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-j ʕaˤsi-li=ca-w
pn ( abs ) pn - obl - super ( lat ) angry- adv = cop - m
‘Islam holds a grudge against Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.

123. take offence q'uc'-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam Nadir-ri-j q'uc'-ih-ub
pn pn - obl - super ( lat ) offence-( m ) lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam took offence at Nadir.’

124. upset pašman-B-ih-aq-uj

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il Madina c'aˤq'-il pašman-r-ih-aq-ub
pn - erg pn ( abs ) very- adv disappointment- f - lv . pfv - caus - aor
‘Islam greatly upset Madina.’

125. marvel tamaša-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam hel šahar-ri-j tamaša-w-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) this town- obl - super ( lat ) surprise- m - lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam was impressed by this town.’

126. despise či-B-ag-uj a-B-ičː-aq-uj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-li-j Nadir či-w-ag-uj e-jčː-aq-u
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn ( abs ) on - m -see. pfv - subj .3 neg -( m )want. ipfv - caus - prs . hab
‘Islam hates Nadir.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

127. get upset pašman-B-ih-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_bahandan
X: ABS
Y: bahandan
Locus: Y
Islam cin-na durħuˤ bahandan pašman-ih-ub
pn ( abs ) self- gen son( abs ) because_of disappointment-( m ) lv . pfv - aor
‘Islam got upset with his son.’

128. get irritated q'uc'-či-B-iːr-araj

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.LAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.LAT
Locus: Y
Islam cin-na rirsːi-li-j q'uc'-či-w-iːr-a=ca-w
pn ( abs ) self- gen daughter- obl - super ( lat ) anger- on - m - lv . ipfv - prs = cop - m
‘Islam is getting irritated with his daughter.’

129. be fond ʕaˤħ-ka-B-ircː-araj

Valency pattern: SUPER.LAT_ABS
X: SUPER.LAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j Nadir ʕaˤħ-k-eːrcː-ar
pn - obl - super ( lat ) pn ( abs ) good- down -( m ) lv . ipfv - prs . hab
‘Islam is fond of Nadir.’

130. be shy urucː-B-ik'ʷ-araj

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam ca-w ʁuk-il urucː-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn ( abs ) self- m ( abs ) short- adv shyness-( m ) lv . ipfv - cvb = cop - m
‘Islam is embarrased by the fact that he is short.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed in a dependent clause.