BivalTyp

Tsudakhar Dargwa

Contributed by Gasangusen Sulaibanov (Academia.edu profile)

G.S.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2024 from Maryam Gadzhieva, along with her school students. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Sulaibanov, Gasangusen. 2024. Bivalent patterns in Tsudakhar Dargwa. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on February 5, 2024; last revised on June 6, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Tsudakhar Dargwa follows an ergative-absolutive alignment, typical of all languages of this family, with feature agreement based on nominal class (gender/number) and person agreement, as is common in Dargwa languages. This system allows for free word order. It is a highly agglutinative language in both nominal and verbal domains, featuring an extensive and complex case system, particularly in the locative domain.

Case system

The grammatical cases include the nominative (NOM), which is unmarked and corresponds to the base form of the word, along with the ergative (ERG), genitive (GEN), dative (DAT), and comitative (COM) cases.

The system of spatial cases is structured around three dimensions: localisation, orientation, and direction. The locative morphemes in Tsudakhar Dargwa specify spatial relations relative to the marked noun. The system of spatial cases is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Spatial cases in Tsudakhar Dargwa

LAT ESS ABL1 ABL2
SUPER -ja -ja-CM -ja-la -ja-kar/-kanra
LOC -le -le-CM -le-la -le-kar/-kanra
INTER -ce -ce-CM -c:e-la -ce-kar/-kanra
APUD -šːu -šːu-CM -šːu-la -šːu-kar /-kanra
ANTE -sa -sa-CM -sa-la -sa-kar /-kanra

When no orientation or direction morphemes are added, locative markers indicate movement towards a location (lative meaning). Combining a locative morpheme with an agreement marker indexing the gender and number of the nominative argument (subject of an intransitive verb or object of a transitive verb) results in an essive orientation, expressing a static position in space.

Additionally, two ablative strategies exist: ABL1 conveys locative ablative meaning, while ABL2 signifies a more non-locative ablative function. Finally, the ergative case is formally expressed by the LOC localisation without firther orientation/direction marker, so that the combined gloss ERG/LOC(LAT) is used below in the data.

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited in their infinitive forms, with aspectual pairs presented in the order PFV/IPFV. Verbs that include a gender and number agreement marker are presented with the singular neuter class marker b- for reference. In complex verbal predicates, the non-verbal component is separated from the auxiliary verb and appears before the first (PFV) verbal root. If the verb contains a locative prefix or prefixes, they are indicated with a hyphen.

Glossing abbreviations

ABL — ablative; ADD — additive; ADV — adverbializer; ANTE — localisation ‘in front of’; APUD — localization ‘near, to, at’; ATR — attributive; CAUS — causative; CNTRS — contrastive; CNV — converb; COM — comitative; COP — copula; DAT — dative; DEM — demonstrative; DIST — distal; DOWN — direction ‘down’; ERG — ergative; ESS — essive; EXST — existential; F — feminine; GEN — genitive; HAB — habitual; ID — ideophone; INF — infinitive; INTER — localization ‘between, in’; IPFV — imperfective; LAT — lative; LOC — locative (common localization); M — masculine; MSD — masdar; N — neuter; NEG — negation; NPL — neuter plural; OBL — oblique; ON — localization ‘on’; PFV — perfective; PL — plural; POST — localization ‘behind, after’; PRET — preterite; PROG — progressive (continuous); PRS — present; REFL — reflexive; SUB — localization ‘under’; SUPER — localization ‘on, above’; TR — transitive; UP — direction ‘up’.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain icː-iz

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-la bek' icː-ule=sab
boy- gen head hurt. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop : n (3)
‘The boy now has a headache.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

2. have (illness) d-ač'-iz

Valency pattern: SUPER(LAT)_NOM
X: SUPER(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-ja gripː d-ač'-ible=sad
boy- super ( lat ) flu npl -come. pfv - pret . cnv = cop : npl (3)
‘The boy came down with the flu.’

3. be afraid uruχ b-ič'-iž

Valency pattern: NOM_ANTE.ESS
X: NOM
Y: ANTE.ESS
Locus: Y
uršːi χʷaˤ-li-sa-w uruχ k'-ule=saj
boy dog- obl - ante - m . ess fear m .say- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw iš-iz/irš-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le qːarqːa ix-ub
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) stone throw. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy threw a stone.’

5. have enough b-eʁ-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z arc d-eʁ-ule=sad
boy- dat money npl -be.enough. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop : npl (3)
‘The boy has enough money.’

6. resemble miši b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi tːutːes-li-ja miši-le=saj
boy father- obl - super ( lat ) similar- adv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy resembles his father.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

7. believe irχ k-až-iz/k-arž-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-ja irχ k-arg-ule=saj
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) m .trust down - m .put. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The father believes his friend.’

8. take h-asː-iz/h-ajsː-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le kniža h-asː-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) book up -take. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy took a book.’

9. see če-b-až-iz/če-b-iž-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z qali če-b-ig-ule=sab
boy- dat home on - n -see. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop : n (3)
‘The boy sees a house.’

10. influence *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
ʡumru ar d-ax-ni-le d-aχril asar b-irq'-u
life away/back npl -go- msd - erg / loc ( lat ) npl -knowledge away/off n -do. ipfv - hab . prs
‘With life passing by, knowledge goes down.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

11. encounter qːaršːi b-ič-iz/b-irč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-cːila qːaršːi ič-ib
boy friend- obl - com opposite m .get. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy encountered a friend.’

12. enter hа-b-ac'-iz/ha-b-ic'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_ERG/LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi uškul-le h-ac'-ib
boy school- erg / loc ( lat ) up -( m )go. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy entered the school.’

13. win četːe b-ičː-iz/b-irčː-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER.ABL2
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL2
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-j-kar četːi ič-ib
boy friend- obl - super - abl 2 through m .fall. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy beat his friend.’

14. go out tːura b-uq-iz/b-ulq-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_LOC.ABL1
X: NOM
Y: LOC.ABL1
Locus: Y
uršːi uškul-le-la tːura uq-un
boy school- loc - abl 1 outside( lat ) ( m )move. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy went out of the school.’

15. drive baˤħ b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le q'ʷaˤl awlaq-le baˤħ b-arq'-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) cow flat- erg / loc ( lat ) face do. pfv - pret . cnv (3)
‘The boy drove the cow into the plain.’

16. bend b-alq'-aq-iz/b-ulk'-aq-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi q'aˤli b-elk'-aq-un
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) branch n -bend. pfv - caus - pret (3)
‘The boy bent the branch.’

17. tell b-urs-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi-le unra-c:e b-urs-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) neighbor- inter ( lat ) n -tell- pret (3)
‘The boy told his neighbor.’

18. hold ka-b-uc-iz/ka-b-urc-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le nuqba-cːe kniža ka-b-uc-ible=saj
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) hand. pl . obl - inter ( lat ) book down - n -keep. pfv - pret . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is holding a book in his hands.’

19. catch up ʡer b-eʁ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-ja ʡer eʁ-ib
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) post (after) reach. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy caught up with his friend.’

20. milk b-ircː-iz/icː-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-le q'ʷaˤl b-ircː-ib
girl- erg / loc ( lat ) cow n -milk. pfv - pret (3)
‘The girl milked the cow.’

21. reach b-it-eʁ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_ERG/LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
rursːi ħerk'-la muza-le r-et-eʁ-ib
girl river- gen edge- erg / loc ( lat ) f -thither-reach. pfv - pret (3)
‘The girl reached the bank of the river.’

22. touch če-ačː-iz/če-ičː-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
rursːi-le baˤħ-li-c:e če-ačː-ib
girl- erg / loc ( lat ) wall- obl - inter ( lat ) up -touch/hit. pfv - pret (3)
‘The girl touched the wall.’

23. fight b-aˤħ-iz/b-irħ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi rursːi-ja irħ-ule=saj
boy girl- super ( lat ) ( m )fight. pfv - prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is fighting with a girl.’

24. be friends juldašː b-ič-iz/b-irč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
uršːi unra-cːila juldaš ič-ib
boy neighbor- com friend ( m )fall. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy is friends with the neighbor.’

25. think pikri b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_GENcela
X: NOM
Y: GENcela
Locus: Y
uršːi neš-la če-la pikri ik'-ule=saj
boy mother- gen on- abl 1 thought ( m )say- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is thinking about his mother.’

26. eat b-erč-iz/b-uč-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le hinc b-erk-un
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) apple n -eat. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy ate an apple.’

27. fry b-erc'-iz/b-uc'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-le dig b-erc'-ib
girl- erg / loc ( lat ) meat n -roast. pfv - pret (3)
‘The girl roasted the meat.’

28. wait ħerli ha-b-iž-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
rursːi neš-li-ja ħer-li ha-r-iž-ible=sar
girl mother- obl - super ( lat ) look- adv up - f -sit. pfv - pret . cnv = cop : f (3)
‘The girl is waiting for her mother.’

29. forget qːum k-art-iz/art-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z it-il xuni qum k-art-ur
boy- dat dem . dist - cntrs road mind down -put- pret (3)
‘The boy forgot about the other road.’

30. depend *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

31. call waˤw ʔ-iz/ʔir-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi-le juldaš-li-c:e waˤw ʔ-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) friend- obl - inter ( lat ) call say. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy called his friend.’

32. get to know zu b-aχ-iz/b-alχ-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi-li-z unra-la zu b-aχ-ur
boy- obl - dat neighbor- gen name n -know. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy got to know his neighbor.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

33. know b-aχ-iz/b-alχ-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-li-z unra r-alχ-a
boy- obl - dat neighbor f -know. ipfv -3 hab . prs
‘The boy knows his (female) neighbor.’

34. play (instrument) b-aˤq-iχ/b-irq-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le tːam b-irq-ule=sab
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) drum n -do. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop : n (3)
‘The boy is playing the drum.’

35. avoid *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi-li-z unra w-aˤħ ačː-ible ʡaˤ-b-ikː-ule=sab
boy- obl - dat neighbor m -face hit. pfv - pret . cnv neg - n -like/want- prog . cnv = cop : n (3)
‘The boy does not want to encounter his neighbor.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

36. make b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le waca-z tːam d-arq'-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) mouse- dat trap n -do. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy made a mousetrap.’

37. make fun inžit b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le kːata inžit b-irq'-ule=sab
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) cat weary n -do. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop . n (3)
‘A boy is bullying a cat.’

38. have le-b

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-la qali le-b
boy- gen home cop . exst - n
‘The boy has a house.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

39. look for hitːe b-aš-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi umxu-ja hitːi w-ax-ule=saj
boy key- super ( lat ) post (after) m -walk- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is looking for his key.’

40. paint b-eršː-iz/ruršː-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le bur b-erx-ur
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) door npl -paint. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy painted the door.’

41. bite q'ac' b-ič-iz/b-ilč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi-ja χʷaˤ q'ac' ka-b-ik-ub
boy- super ( lat ) dog id .bite down- n -bite. pfv - pret (3)
‘A dog bit the boy.’

42. forfeit ka-b-iχ-iz/ka-b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_akwar
X: NOM
Y: akwar
Locus: Y
unra qali akːʷar ka-jχ-ub
neighbor home cop . neg (3) down-( m )be. pfv - pret (3)
‘The neighbor remained homeless.’

43. try to catch b-uc-iz/b-urc-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
kːata-le waca b-urc-ule=sab
cat- erg / loc ( lat ) mouse n -catch. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop : n (3)
‘The cat is trying to catch a mouse.’

44. break b-urʡ-iz/ʡuʡ=iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le t'irxa b-urʔ-ub
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) stick n -break. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy broke a stick.’

45. flatter *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

46. love (person) b-ičː-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-li-z neš r-ikː-aq-u
boy- obl - dat mother f -love- caus -3 hab . prs
‘The boy loves his mother.’

47. wave hak' b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_ERG/LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi naˤq-le hak' ik'-ule=saj
boy hand- erg / loc ( lat ) id .swing ( m )say- prog . cnv = cop . m (3)
‘The boy is waving his hand.’

48. dream b-ikː-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi-z sakːa mašina asː-iz b-ikː-ule=saj
boy- dat new car buy- inf n -like/want- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy wants to buy a new car.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause.

49. wash b-irc-iz/ic-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-le kuruška b-irc-ib
girl- erg / loc ( lat ) cup n -wash. pfv - pret (3)
‘The girl washed the cup.’

50. put on aχ-iz/alχ-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːile ħwewa h-aχ-ur
girl- erg / loc ( lat ) dress up -wear. pfv - pret (3)
‘The girl put on her dress.’

51. be called COP

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.AGR)
X: NOM
Y: NOM(NO.AGR)
Locus: Y
ez kalbataj=sab
this pliers= cop . n
‘This is called pliers’ (lit. ‘This is pliers’).
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

52. punish b-it-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
unra-le sune-la uršːi it-ib
neighbor- erg / loc ( lat ) refl . obl - gen boy ( m )beat. pfv - pret (3)
‘The neighbor beat his son.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

53. attack če-b-uq-iz/če-b-ulq-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
χʷaˤ uršːi-ja če-b-uq-un
dog boy- super ( lat ) on - n -fall. pfv - pret (3)
‘A dog attacked the boy.’

54. fill (intr) b-ic'-iz/b-irc'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_ERG/LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
bidra šin-ne b-ic'-ib
bucket water- erg / loc ( lat ) n -fill. pfv - pret (3)
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find b-arčː-iz/b-určː-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-li-z umxu b-arčː-ib
boy- obl - dat key n -find. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy found his key.’

56. be short ʡaˤ-b-eʁ-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z ca qːuruš ʡaˤ-b-eʁ-ule=sab
boy- dat one ruble neg - n -be_enough. pfv - prog . cnv = cop . n (3)
‘The boy is ten roubles short.’

57. hate če-b-až-iz ʡaˤ-bičː-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z unra če-w-až-iz ʡaˤ-jkː-ule=saj
boy- dat neighbor on - m -see. pfv - inf neg -( m )say- prog . cnv = cop . m (3)
‘The boy hates his neighbor.’

58. like ʡaˤχ b-icː-iz/b-ilcː-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z mašina ʡaˤχ b-ilcː-unne=sab
boy- dat car good n -stand. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop . n (3)
‘The boy likes the car.’

59. need ʡaˤʡni-le sab

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːiz mašina ʡaˤʡni-le=sab
boy- dat car need- adv = cop : n (3)
‘The boy needs a car.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

60. surround alaw ka-b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
quli lucra-le alaw ka-b-arq'-ible=sab
home wall. pl . obl - erg / loc ( lat ) around down - n -do. pfv - pret . cnv = cop . n (3)
‘Walls surround the house.’

61. remain k-alž-iz

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-la wec'al qːuruš k-alg-unne=sab
boy- gen ten money down-stay. pfv - pret . cnv = cop . n (3)
‘The boy has ten roubles left.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

62. answer ʁaj ʔ-iz/ʔir=iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi-le tːutːešː-i-cːe ʁaj ʔ-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) father- obl - inter ( lat ) word say. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy answered his father.’

63. open abšː-iz/ibšː-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le bank'a abšː-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) pot open. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy opened a pot.’

64. be different sur-se=sab

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER.ABL2
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL2
Locus: Y
dila mašina beħ sur-se=sab uršːi-la-ja-kanra
1. gen car face reverse- atr = cop : n (3) boy- gen - super ( lat )- abl 2
‘My car is different from the boy’s.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind ʡel b-ič-iz/b-irč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER.ABL2
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL2
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-j-kar ʡel ha-jč-ib
boy friend- obl - super - abl 2 behind up -( m )fall. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy fell behind the girl.’

66. plough b-ac-iz/b-alc-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
unra-le qu b-ac'-un
neighbor- erg / loc ( lat ) field n -plough. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy ploughed the field.’

67. smell kːʷaˤʡ b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_GEN
X: NOM
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
dila nuqbe benzin-na kːʷaˤʡ d-ik'-ule=sade
1. gen hand. pl . obl oil- gen smell npl -say- prog . cnv = cop . npl (3)
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

68. cross it-il šːal-le b-at ac'-iz/b-it ic'-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi xːun-na it-il šːal-le w-at ac'-ib
boy road- gen dem . dist - cntrs side- erg / loc ( lat ) m -thither get. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy crossed the road.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

69. sing b-elč'-iz/b-uč'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le dalaj b-elč'-un
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) song n -read. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy sang a song.’

70. write b-elč'-iz/luč'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le kaʁar b-elk'-un
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) letter n -write. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy wrote a letter.’

71. drink b-erčː-iz/b-učː-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le nig d-erčː-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) milk npl -drink. ipfv - pret (3)
‘The boy drank the milk.’

72. melt b-ac'-aq/b-ic'-aq-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le č'at' b-ac'-aq-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) lead n -melt. pfv - caus - pret (3)
‘The boy melted a piece of lead.’

73. match b-alar ʔ-iz/arb-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-li-z š:i b-alar b-e-unne=sab
boy- obl - dat village n -suitable n -get. pfv - prog . cnv = cop . n (3)
‘The village suits the boy.’

74. leave b-at-iz/b-alt-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le šːi b-at-ur
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) village n -leave. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy left his native village.’

75. cover ka-b-uc'-iz/ka-b-urc-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
sːamak-le lebil č'aˤbar ka-b-uc-ible=sab
carpet- erg / loc ( lat ) all: n floor down - n -take. pfv - pret . cnv = cop : n (3)
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember han b-ič-iz/b-irč-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z šːi ʡaˤħ-le han b-irk-ule=sab
boy- dat village good- adv mind n -get. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop . exst : n (3)
‘The boy remembers the village well.’

77. help iq'al b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_DAT
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
uršːi-le juldaš-i-z iq'al b-arq'-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) friend- obl - dat help n -do. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy helped his friend.’

78. understand (language) arʁ-iz/irʁ-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z ʡurus mec irʁ-ule=sad
boy- dat russian language understand. ipfv - prog . cnv = cop . npl (3)
‘The boy understands Russian.’

79. hit (target) b-arx b-icː-iz/b-ilcː-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_INTER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
c'a-la bartːa tːultːa-cːe b-arx b-ic-ur
fire- gen hatchet tree- inter ( lat ) right n -stand. pfv - pret (3)
‘Lightning hit the tree.’

80. cut oneself b-aˤq-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi dis-le w-aˤq-ib
boy knife- erg / loc ( lat ) m -hurt. pfv - pret (3)
‘The knife cut the boy.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

81. get stuck če-k-ač-iz/če-k-alč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_INTER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
marč'i širbar-li-c:e če-k-ak-un
thorn trousers- obl - inter ( lat ) on - down -cling. pfv - pret (3)
‘A thorn stuck to the trousers.’

82. lose (game) gub ha-b-ič-iz/ha-b-irč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER.ABL2
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL2
Locus: Y
uršːi gu-wa w-ajč-ib juldaš-li-jа-kar
boy sub - m . lat m -fall. pfv - pret (3) friend- obl - super - abl 2
‘The boy lost to his friend.’

83. be glad raˤzi b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
uršːi saka χaburta-z raˤzi iχ-ub
boy new news. pl . obl - dat happy ( m )be. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy was glad about the news.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

84. speak ʁaj b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-c:ila ʁaj ik'-ule=saj
boy friend- obl - com speech ( m )say- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is speaking with his friend.’

85. give birth b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
unra-le uršːi w-arq'-ib
neighbor- erg / loc ( lat ) boy m -do. pfv - pret (3)
‘The neighbor gave birth to a son.’

86. drop b-at k-aʁ-iz/k-ajʁ-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le stakan b-at k-aʁ-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) cup n -let down -chase. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy dropped the glass.’

87. govern b-ucː-aq-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
unra-le nišːala šːi b-ucː-aq-ule=saj
neighbor- erg / loc ( lat ) 1 pl . gen village n -operate- caus - prog . cnv = cop . m
‘The neighbor runs the village.’

88. miss *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

89. follow hitːe b-aš-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-ja hitːi w-ax-ule=saj
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) post (after) m -walk- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy follows his friend.’

90. dismount ka-b-ac'-iz/ka-b-ic'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER.ABL1
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL1
Locus: Y
uršːi urči-ja-la k-ac'-ib
boy horse- super - abl 1 down -( m )fall. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy got down from the horse.’

91. listen leħ aq-iz/iq-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi telewizor-li-jaˤ laˤħ ilq-une=saj
boy tv- obl - super ( lat ) ear hang. pfv - pret . cnv = cop : m .3
‘The boy is listening to the tv.’

92. obey *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
gula-le tːutːeš-la aj b-irq'-u
child. pl . obl - erg / loc ( lat ) father- gen word n -do. ipfv -3 hab . prs
‘The children obey their father.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

93. hear b-aq'-iz/b-iq'-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z t'ama b-iq'-ule=sab
boy- dat sound n -hear. pfv - prog . cnv = cop . n
‘The boy hears the noise.’

94. mix b-arχa b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_INTER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
waza nig-li-c:e d-arχ ha-d-iχ-ub
honey milk- obl - inter ( lat ) npl -mix up - npl -be. pfv - pret (3)
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look ħer b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi dirix-ma-ja ħer ik'-ule=saj
boy cloud- pl . obl - super ( lat ) look ( m )say- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off če-b-b-at-iz/če-b-b-alt-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le ħewa če-b-b-at-ur
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) shirt on - n . ess - n -leave. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) merlicːe-b če-b-až-iz/če-b-iž-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z neš mer-li-cːe-r če-r-až-ib
boy- dat mother dream- obl - inter - f . ess on - f -see. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy has dreamed about his mother.’

98. agree raˤzi ka-b-ič-iz/ka-b-irč-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
uršːi neš-li-cːila razi ka-jč-ib
boy mother- obl - com agreement down -( m )fall. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy agreed with his mother.’

99. have a quarrel sem ha-b-uč'-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi=ra juldaš=ra sem ha-b-uč'-ib
boy= add friend= add anger up - n -take. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy had a quarrel with his friend.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

100. cost ha-b-eʁ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_ERG/LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
ca kila kartoška-la ʁal qːuruš-le ha-b-eʁ-ib
one kilo potato- gen twenty ruble- erg / loc ( lat ) up - n -reach. pfv - pret (3)
‘One kilo of potatoes costs twenty roubles.’

101. shoot at iš-iz/irš-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_DAT
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
uršːi-le χʷaˤ-li-z ix-ub
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) dog- obl - dat throw. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy shot at the dog.’

102. pour k-aq'-iz/k-alq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le čaj-li-c:e pisuk' k-aq'-ur
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) tea- obl - inter ( lat ) sweet down -pour. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy poured the sugar into the cup.’

103. lose paˤχ-li b-už-iz/b-ulž-iz

Valency pattern: GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-la umxne paˤχ-li d-ug-un
boy- gen key. pl away- erg / loc ( lat ) npl -stay. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy lost his keys.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

104. sink ar b-uq-iz/b-eq-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_GENgu
X: NOM
Y: GENgu
Locus: Y
tːultːa šin-na gu ar b-uqː-ib
plank water- gen sub ( lat ) away/from n -carry. pfv - pret (3)
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill ka-b-uš-iz/ka-b-urš-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le ħunri ka-b-ušː-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) mosquito down -kill. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy killed a mosquito.’

106. hit b-aˤq-iz/b-irq-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_DAT
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
uršːi-le q'ʷaˤl-li-z b-aˤq-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) cow- obl - dat n -hit. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy hit the cow.’

107. kiss č'op b-ičː-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_SUPER(LAT)
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi nešli-jaˤ č'op' ik-un
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) mother- super ( lat ) kiss ( m )say. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy kissed his mother.’

108. read b-elž-iz/luž-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le knižka b-elg-un
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) book n -read. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy read the book.’

109. move (bodypart) šiq' b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
uršːi-le t'ul šiq' b-arq'-ib
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) toe id .shift n -do. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy moved his toe.’

110. respect q'imat b-arq'-iz/b-irq'-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_GEN
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
uršːi-le juldaš-la q'imat b-irq'-u
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) friend- gen respect n -do. ipfv -3 hab . prs
‘The boy respects his neighbor.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

111. be squeamish *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

112. be content raˤzi-le b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
tːutːeš sune-la uršːi-jaˤ-w razi-le=saj
father refl . obl - gen boy- super - m . ess happy- adv = cop : m (3)
‘The father is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

114. trust irχ k-až-iz/k-arž-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
tːutːeš sune-la uršːi-jaˤ irχ k-arg-u
father refl . obl - gen boy- super ( lat ) belief down -put. ipfv -3 hab . prs
‘The father trusts his son.’

115. sympathise jazuq b-icː-iz/b-ilcː-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z juldaš jazuq ilc-unne=saj
boy- dat friend poor ( m )appear. pfv - prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy sympathises with his friend.’

116. envy ħaˤl b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-jaˤ ħaˤl ik'-ule=saj
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) wish ( m )say- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy envies his neighbor.’

117. be angry sim ha-b-uč'-iz/ha-b-urč'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-jaˤ sim ha-w-č'-ible=saj
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) angry up - m -take. pfv - pret . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy is angry with his neighbor.’

118. be surprised tamaša b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
il podarok-li-z uršːi tamaša iχ-ub
this gift- obl - dat boy amazing ( m )be. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy was surprised at this gift.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

119. love (tea) b-ikː-aq-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z čaj d-ikː-aq-u
boy- dat tea npl -like/want- caus - hab . prs 3
‘The boy loves tea.’

120. enjoy *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

121. want b-ičː-iz

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
uršːi-z čaj d-ikː-ule=sad
boy- dat tea npl -like/want- prog . cnv = cop . npl
‘The boy wants tea.’

122. have a grudge ʡaˤsi b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-jaˤ ʡaˤsi ik'-ule=saj
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) disappointment ( m )say- prog . cnv = cop : m (3)
‘The boy holds a grudge against his friend.’

123. take offence sim ha-b-uč'-iz/ha-b-urč'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
uršːi juldaš-li-jaˤ sim ha-w-č'-ib
boy friend- obl - super ( lat ) angry up - m -come- pret (3)
‘The boy took offence at his friend.’

124. upset waˤl b-iχ-aq-iz

Valency pattern: ERG/LOC(LAT)_DAT
X: ERG/LOC(LAT)
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
uršːi-le juldaš-li-z waˤl b-iχ-aq-ub
boy- erg / loc ( lat ) friend- obl - dat bad n -be. pfv - caus - pret (3)
‘The boy greatly upset his friend.’

125. marvel tamaša b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
uršːi šahar če-b-až-ible tamaša iχ-ub
boy city on -see. pfv - pret . cnv amazing ( m )be. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy saw the city and was amazed.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause.

126. despise *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

127. get upset waˤʡaˤr b-iχ-iz/b-irχ-iz

Valency pattern: GEN_bahandan
X: GEN
Y: bahandan
Locus: XY
juldaš bahandan uršːi-la urč'i-li-z waˤʡaˤr b-iχ-ub
friend because boy- gen heart- obl - dat bad n -be. pfv - pret (3)
‘The boy got upset because of his friend.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

128. get irritated *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

129. be fond *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

130. be shy uruc b-ič'-iz

Valency pattern: NOM_ANTE.ESS
X: NOM
Y: ANTE.ESS
Locus: Y
uršːi tːutːeš-li-sa-w uruc k'-ule=saj
boy father- obl - ante - ess . m shame ( m )say. pfv - prog . cnv = cop . m (3)
‘The boy is embarrased about his father.’