Georgian

Contributed by Alexander Rostovtsev-Popiel (Academia.edu profile)

A.P.'s photo

How to cite

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Georgian. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on June 8, 2023; last revised on October 3, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Coordinates: 41.85, 43.79.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Kartvelian, genus: Kartvelian.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.

The data were initially obtained in 2011 (and then revised in 2023) by Alexander Rostovtsev-Popiel in his capacity of an L2 speaker of Georgian, with a substantial assistance of a number of native speakers outside of academia who expressed no interest in being named.

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Valency classes of Georgian verbs are primarily defined by their case frames. However, many Georgian verbs, including all transitive verbs, display the so-called “case-shift”: a phenomenon whereby the case marking of arguments depends on the verb’s TAM form. Georgian TAM forms group into so-called “series”, where Series I is present/future, Series II is aorist/optative; and Series III is perfect/pluperfect. Case marking in verbs that undergo case-shift is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Verbs with case-shift: case marking in the three series

	Subject	Direct object	Indirect object
Series I: present/future	NOM	DAT	DAT
Series II: aorist/optative	ERG	NOM	DAT
Series III: perfect/pluperfect	DAT	NOM	OBL (i)

(i) OBL stands here for “oblique” and covers Benefactive and Sociative (and Allative in some dialects).

For the purposes of the dataset below, the verb is considered transitive if and only if it displays case-shift so that its X-argument is case-marked as the “Subject”, and its Y-argument is case-marked as the “Direct object” in Table 1. The valency-encoding devices for the two core arguments in transitive constructions are labeled as “ERG” and “NOM” respectively, even if the actual sentence happens to belong to Series I, where we observe no ergative case-marking (Series III forms are not found in the questionnaire below). For example, the equivalent of ‘plough’ (#66) in (2) is allotted to the same class as the equivalent of ‘take’ (#8) in (1), even though the two exemplar sentences display discrepant case frames.

(1)  p'et're-m  taro-dan            c'ign-i   a-Ø-i-γ-o
     PN-ERG     shelf-PSTP:INS.ABL  book-NOM  PRV:upward-DO3-VER:S-take-S3SG.PST
     ‘Petre took a book from the shelf.’

(2)  p'et're-Ø  q'ana-s    Ø-xn-av-s
     PN-NOM     field-DAT  DO3-plough-SM-S3SG
     ‘Petre is ploughing the field.’

Thus, the labels used in the annotation of transitive verbs correspond to the actual case frame in Series II (ERG, NOM). The same convention applies to case-shift verbs that do not meet the aforementioned transitivity criterion. For example, the equivalent of ‘look’ (#95) is labeled as an “ERG_DAT” verb, even though the actual questionnaire sentence in (3) belongs to Series I and displays a nominative subject (X argument).

(3)  p'et're-Ø  γrubl-eb-s    Ø-u-q'ur-eb-s
     PN-NOM     cloud-PL-DAT  IO3-VER:O-look_at-SM-S3SG
     ‘Petre is looking at the clouds.’

The distinction between verbs with and without case-shift is part of the traditional four-way classification of Georgian verbs that is based on the morphological and morphosyntactic properties, whereby verbs with case-shift belong to Classes I and III, see Rostovtsev-Popiel (2016) for further details. The verbs in Class II, as in (4), display nominative subjects across all series, and the verbs in Class IV, as in (5), display dative subjects across all series.

(4)  p'et're-Ø  mašo-s  Ø-e-p'irper-eb-a
     PN-NOM     PN-DAT  IO3-VER:R-flatter-SM-S3SG.INACT
     ‘Petre is flattering Masho.’ (#45)

(5)  p'et're-s  grip'-i  Ø-a-kv-s
     PN-DAT     flu-NOM  IO3-VER:SUP-have-S3SG
     ‘Petre has the flu.’ (#2)

Note that the verbs in (3) and (4) belong to distinct valency classes as identified in this dataset, although the observed case marking patterns in the present-tense questionnaire sentences are identical.

In bivalent and trivalent verbs, up to two arguments can be cross-referenced on the verb overtly, by prefixal and suffixal markers; only arguments flagged by nominative, ergative and dative cases can be cross-referenced.

Case system

There are seven basic grammatical cases: nominative, ergative, dative, genitive, instrumental, adverbial and vocative (the latter two cases are not used in the Georgian dataset below). Apart from the grammatical cases, there are around a dozen semantic cases, primarily coded by semi-detachable postpositional markers. Among these, ablative, illative, inessive, sociative, sublative, and superessive are found in the dataset.

References

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2016. Argumentstruktur und aspektuelle Komposition im Georgischen. Georgica 37: 35–51.

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited in the 3SG form of either Present or Future tense (as indicated in each instance). Future forms are shown in case the Present tense form is not sufficiently informative with respect to the verb's lexical semantics.

Glossing abbreviations

ABL — ablative; ADJ — adjective; ATTR — attributive; AUX - auxiliary; B — base; CAUS — causative; COP — copula; DAT — dative; DEM — demonstrative; DIST — distal; DO — direct object; ERG — ergative; FACT — factitive; FUT — future; GEN — genitive; ILL — illative; INACT — inactive; INCH — inchoative; INESS — inessive; INS — instrumental; INTR — intransitive; IO — indirect object; NEG — negation; NOM — nominative; OBL — oblique; PN — person name; POSS — possessive; PRFX — prefix; PRIV — privative; PROX — proximal; PRS — present; PRV — preverb; PST — past; PSTP — postposition; PTCP — participle; REFL — reflexive; R.EXT — root extension; S — subject marker; SG — singular; SM — series marker; SOC — sociative; STAT — stative; SUBL — sublative; SUPERESS — superessive; TR — transitive; VER:N — neutral versionizer; VER:O — objective versionizer; VER:R — relative versionizer; VER:S — subjective versionizer; VER:SUP — superessive versionizer.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain s-t'k'-iv-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	tav-i	s-t'k'-iv-a
pn - dat	head- nom	io 3-ache- r . ext - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre has a headache.’

2. have (illness) Ø-a-kv-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	grip'-i	Ø-a-kv-s
pn - dat	flu- nom	io 3- ver : sup -have- s 3 sg
‘Petre has the flu.’
Note: This root is associated with inanimate possessees.

3. be afraid Ø-e-šin-i-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN

X: DAT

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

p'et're-s	ʒaγl-is	Ø-e-šin-i-a
pn - dat	dog- gen	io 3- ver : r -fear- stat - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw Ø-i-svr-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	p'irvel-ma	Ø-i-sr-ol-a	kva-Ø
pn - erg	first- erg	do 3- ver : s -shoot- r . ext - s 3 sg . pst	stone- nom
‘Petre was the first to throw a stone.’

5. have enough Ø-q'-op-n-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	pul-i	Ø-q'-op-n-i-s
pn - dat	money- nom	io 3-suffice- r . ext - stat - sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre has enough money.’

6. resemble h-gav-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mamia-s	h-gav-s
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3-be_alike- s 3 sg
‘Petre resembles Mamia.’

7. believe s-ǯer-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN

X: DAT

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

p'et're-s	mamia-si	s-ǯer-a
pn - dat	pn - gen	io 3-believe- s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre believes Mamia.’

8. take a-Ø-i-γ-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	taro-dan	c'ign-i	a-Ø-i-γ-o
pn - erg	shelf- pstp : ins . abl	book- nom	prv :upward- do 3- ver : s -take- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre took a book from the shelf.’
Note: Upward motion is implied.

9. see Ø-xed-av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-Ø	saxl-s	Ø-xed-av-s
pn - nom	house- dat	do 3-see- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre sees a house.’

10. influence ze-gavlena-s Ø-a-xd-en-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SUPERESS

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

asak'-i	mexsiereba-ze	ze-gavlena-s	Ø-a-xd-en-s
age- nom	memory- pstp : superess	prfx : superess -influence- dat	do 3- fact -happen- fact - s 3 sg
‘Age influences memory.’
Note: The prefix ze- is optional.

11. encounter še-Ø-xvd-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	še-Ø-xvd-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv :inward- io 3-meet- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre encountered Masho.’

12. enter še-Ø-di-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.INESS

X: ERG

Y: DAT.INESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	saxl-ši	še-Ø-vid-a
pn - nom	house- pstp : iness	prv :inward- s 3-go. pst - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre entered the house.’

13. win mo-Ø-u-g-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	č'adrak'-ši	mašo-s	mo-Ø-u-g-o
pn - erg	chess- pstp : iness	pn - dat	prv : prox - io 3- ver : o -win- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre beat Masho at chess.’

14. go out ga-Ø-di-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS.ABL

X: NOM

Y: INS.ABL

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	saxl-idan	ga-Ø-vid-a
pn - nom	house- pstp : ins . abl	prv :outward- s 3-go. pst - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre went out of the house.’

15. drive Ø-e-rek'-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	p'ir-u-t'q'v-s	naxir-ši	Ø-e-rek'-eb-a
pn - nom	mouth- priv -speak- dat	pasture- pstp : ill	io 3- ver : r -call- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is driving the animal to the pasture.’

16. bend mo-Ø-γun-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	t'ot'-i	mo-Ø-γun-a
pn - erg	branch- nom	prv : prox - do 3-bend- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre bent the branch.’

17. tell Ø-e-ubn-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	mašo-s	raγaca-Ø	Ø-u-txr-a
pn - erg	pn - dat	something- nom	io 3- ver : o -tell- sm - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre told Masho something.’

18. hold Ø-u-č'ir-av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	xel-ši	c'ign-i	Ø-u-č'ir-av-s
pn - dat	hand- pstp : iness	book- nom	io 3- ver : o -hold- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is holding a book in his hand.’

19. catch up da-Ø-e-c'ev-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	da-Ø-e-c'i-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv :downward- io 3- ver : r -catch up- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre caught up with Masho.’

20. milk mo-Ø-c'vel-i-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	ʒroxa-Ø	mo-Ø-c'vel-a
pn - erg	cow- nom	prv : prox - do 3-milk- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre milked the cow.’

21. reach mi-Ø-a-γc'ev-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	nap'ir-s	mi-Ø-a-γc'i-a
pn - erg	river_bank- dat	prv : dist - io 3- ver : sup -reach- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre reached the river bank.’

22. touch še-Ø-e-x-eb-a (PRS/FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	k'edel-s	še-Ø-e-x-o
pn - nom	wall- dat	prv :inward- io 3- ver : r -touch- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre touched the wall.’

23. fight Ø-čxub-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SOC

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SOC

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s-tan	Ø-čxub-ob-s
pn - nom	pn - dat - pstp : soc	s 3-fight- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is fighting with Masho.’

24. be friends Ø-megobr-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SOC

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SOC

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s-tan	Ø-megobr-ob-s
pn - nom	pn - dat - pstp : soc	s 3-be_friends- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is friends with Masho.’

25. think Ø-pikr-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SUPERESS

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-ze	Ø-pikr-ob-s
pn - nom	pn - pstp : superess	s 3-think- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is thinking about Masho.’

26. eat še-Ø-č'am-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	vašl-i	še-Ø-č'am-a
pn - erg	apple- nom	prv :inward- do 3-eat- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre ate an apple.’

27. fry še-Ø-c'v-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	tevz-i	še-Ø-c'v-a
pn - erg	fish- nom	prv :inward- do 3-burn- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre fried the fish.’

28. wait Ø-e-lod-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-e-lod-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -wait- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is waiting for Masho.’

29. forget Ø-a-vic'q'-d-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	sxva-Ø	gza-Ø	da-Ø-a-vic'q'-d-a
pn - dat	other- nom	way- nom	prv :downward- io 3- ver : sup -forget- intr - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre forgot the other road.’

30. depend da-mo-k'id-eb-ul-i + COP (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT.SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

mexsiereba-Ø	asak'-ze	da-mo-k'id-eb-ul-i=a
memory- nom	age- pstp : superess	prv :downward- prv : prox -hang- sm - ptcp - nom = cop
‘Memory depends on age.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (participle).

31. call mo-Ø-u-xm-ob-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	mašo-s	mo-Ø-u-xm-o
pn - erg	pn - dat	prv : prox - io 3- ver : s -call_out- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre called Masho.’

32. get to know ga-Ø-i-cn-ob-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	mašo-Ø	ert-i	c'l-is	c'in	ga-Ø-i-cn-o
pn - erg	pn - nom	one- obl	year- gen	ahead	prv :outward- do 3- ver : s -know- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre got to know Masho a year ago.’

33. know Ø-i-cn-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-i-cn-ob-s
pn - nom	pn - dat	do 3- ver : s -know- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre knows Masho.’
Note: This verb refers to animate themes.

34. play (instrument) Ø-u-k'r-av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SUPERESS

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	git'ara-ze	melodia-s	Ø-u-k'r-av-s
pn - nom	guitar- pstp : superess	melody- dat	io 3- ver : o -play- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is playing a tune on the guitar.’
Note: DAT IO omitted.

35. avoid tav-s Ø-a-rid-eb-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	tav-s	Ø-a-rid-eb-s
pn - nom	pn - dat	refl - dat	do 3- fact -avoid- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre avoids Masho.’

36. make da-Ø-a-mzad-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	bomb-i	da-Ø-a-mzad-a
pn - erg	bomb- nom	prv :downward- do 3- fact -ready- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre constructed a bomb.’

37. make fun Ø-e-k'aip-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-e-k'aip-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -make_fun- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is making fun of Masho.’

38. have h-q'av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mankana-Ø	h-q'av-s
pn - dat	car- nom	io 3-have- s 3 sg
‘Petre has a car.’
Note: This root is associated with animate possessees (vehicles often tend to be included in this domain).

39. look for Ø-e-ʒeb-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	gasaγeb-s	Ø-e-ʒeb-s
pn - nom	key- dat	do 3- ver : r -look_for- s 3 sg
‘Petre is looking for his keys.’

40. paint še-Ø-γeb-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	γobe-Ø	še-Ø-γeb-a
pn - erg	fence- nom	prv :inward- do 3-paint- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre painted the fence.’

41. bite Ø-u-k'b-en-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-s	ʒaγl-ma	Ø-u-k'b-in-a
pn - dat	dog- erg	io 3- ver : o -bite- r . ext - s 3 sg . pst
‘A dog bit Petre.’

42. forfeit da-Ø-k'arg-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	saxl-k'ar-i	da-Ø-k'arg-a
pn - erg	house-door- nom	prv :downward- do 3-lose- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre lost his house.’

43. try to catch Ø-i-č'er-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-Ø	k'at'a-s	Ø-i-č'er-s
pn - nom	cat- dat	do 3- ver : s -catch- s 3 sg
‘Petre is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break ga-Ø-t'ex-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	ǯox-i	ga-Ø-t'ex-a
pn - erg	stick- nom	prv :outward- do 3-break. tr - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre broke a stick.’

45. flatter Ø-e-p'irper-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-e-p'irper-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -flatter- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is flattering Masho.’

46. love (person) Ø-u-q'var-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-Ø	Ø-u-q'var-s
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : o -love- s 3 sg
‘Petre loves Masho.’

47. wave Ø-i-kn-ev-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-Ø	p'irsaxoc-s	Ø-i-kn-ev-s
pn - nom	towel- dat	s 3- ver : s -wave- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is waving a towel.’

48. dream Ø-ocneb-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SUPERESS

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	axal	mankana-ze	Ø-ocneb-ob-s
pn - nom	new	car- pstp : superess	s 3-dream- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is dreaming of a new car.’

49. wash ga-Ø-recx-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	č'ika-Ø	ga-Ø-recx-a
pn - erg	glass- nom	prv :outward- do 3-wash- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre washed the cup.’

50. put on ča-Ø-i-cv-am-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	šarval-i	ča-Ø-i-cv-a
pn - erg	trousers- nom	prv :downward+inward- s 3- ver : s -put_on- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre put on his trousers.’

51. be called h-kv-i-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

am	nivt-s	k'omp'as-i	h-kv-i-a
attr . dem . prox _ obl	thing- dat	compass- nom	io 3-be_called- stat - s 3 sg . inact
‘This thing is called a compass.’

52. punish da-Ø-saǯ-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	važ-i	da-Ø-saǯ-a
pn - erg	son- nom	prv :downward- do 3-punish- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre punished his son.’

53. attack tav-s da-Ø-e-sxm-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

metevze-s	datv-i	tav-s	da-Ø-e-sx-a
fisherman- dat	bear- nom	refl - dat	prv :downward- io 3- ver : r -attack- s 3 sg . pst
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) a-Ø-i-vs-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

satl-i	c'q'l-it	a-Ø-i-vs-o
bucket- nom	water- ins	prv :upward- s 3- ver : s -fill- s 3 sg . pst
‘The bucket got filled with water.’

55. find Ø-p'o-ul-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	gasaγeb-i	Ø-i-p'ov-a
pn - erg	key- nom	s 3- ver : s -find- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre found his keys.’

56. be short Ø-a-k'l-i-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	ert-i	dolar-i	h-a-k'l-i-a
pn - dat	one- nom	dollar- nom	io 3- ver : sup -lack- stat - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is one dollar short.’

57. hate s-ʒul-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-Ø	s-ʒul-s
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3-hate- s 3 sg
‘Petre hates Masho.’

58. like mo-s-c'on-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mo-s-c'on-s	es	p'erang-i
pn - dat	prv : prox - io 3-like- s 3 sg	dem . prox _ nom . sg	shirt- nom
‘Petre likes this shirt.’

59. need s-č'ir-d-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	pul-i	s-č'ir-d-eb-a
pn - dat	money- nom	io 3-need- intr - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre needs money.’

60. surround gars Ø-a-rt'q'-i-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

galavan-i	kalak-s	gars	Ø-a-rt'q'-i-a
town.wall- nom	city- dat	around	io 3- ver : sup -strike- stat - s 3 sg . inact
‘The wall surrounds the city.’
Note: The linear position of "gars" is flexible.

61. remain da-Ø-rč-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	at-i	dolar-i	da-Ø-rč-a
pn - dat	ten- nom	dollar- nom	prv :downward- io 3-stay- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre has ten dollars left.’
Note: da-Ø-rč-a features here Ø- IO3 marker, as opposed to da-m-rč-a, da-g-rč-a 'I have… left, you (SG) have… left', cf. with homonymic da-Ø-rč-a that features Ø- S3 marker, as opposed to da-v-rč-i, da-Ø-rč-i 'I remained, you (SG) remainded'.

62. answer Ø-u-p'asux-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	masc'avlebel-s	Ø-u-p'asux-a
pn - erg	teacher- dat	io 3- ver : o -answer- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre answered the teacher.’

63. open ga-Ø-xsn-i-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	kila-Ø	ga-Ø-xsn-a
pn - erg	jar- nom	prv :outward- do 3-open- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre opened a jar.’

64. be different gan-Ø-sxvav-d-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_GEN.ABL

X: NOM

Y: GEN.ABL

Locus: Y

ara,	čem-i	p'erang-i	šen-is-gan	gan-Ø-sxvav-d-eb-a
neg	my- nom	shirt- nom	your- gen - pstp : abl	prv :outward- s 3-be_different- intr - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘No, my shirt is different from yours.’

65. fall behind ča-mo-Ø-rč-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

magram	p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	ča-mo-Ø-rč-a
but	pn - nom	pn - dat	prv :downward+inward- prv : prox - io 3-stay- s 3 sg . pst
‘But Petre fell behind Masho.’

66. plough Ø-xn-av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-Ø	q'ana-s	Ø-xn-av-s
pn - nom	field- dat	do 3-plough- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is ploughing the field.’

67. smell Ø-q'ar-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

čem-i	xel-eb-i	benzin-it	Ø-q'ar-s
my- nom	hand- pl - nom	gasoline- ins	s 3-reek- s 3 sg
‘My hands reek of gasoline.’

68. cross gada-Ø-di-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT.SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	gza-ze	gada-Ø-vid-a
pn - nom	road- pstp : superess	prv :over- s 3-go. pst - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre crossed the road.’

69. sing Ø-mγer-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	lamaz-i	simγera-Ø	Ø-i-mγer-a
pn - erg	beautiful- nom	song- nom	do 3- ver : s -sing- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre sang a beautiful song.’

70. write da-Ø-c'er-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	c'eril-i	da-Ø-c'er-a
pn - erg	letter- nom	prv :downward- do 3-write- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre wrote a letter.’

71. drink da-Ø-lev-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	rʒe-Ø	da-Ø-li-a
pn - erg	milk- nom	prv :downward- do 3-drink- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre drank the milk.’

72. melt da-Ø-a-dn-ob-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	t'q'vi-is	nač'er-i	da-Ø-a-dn-o
pn - erg	lead- gen	piece- nom	prv :downward- do 3- fact -melt- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre melted a piece of lead.’

73. match Ø-u-xd-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

es	kamar-i	čem-s	k'aba-s	Ø-u-xd-eb-a
dem . prox _ nom	belt- nom	my- dat	gown- dat	io 3- ver : o -suit- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘This belt suits my dress.’

74. leave mi-Ø-a-t'ov-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	mšobliur-i	kalak-i	mi-Ø-a-t'ov-a
pn - erg	native- nom	city- nom	prv : dist - io 3- ver : n -leave- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre left his home town for good.’

75. cover Ø-par-av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

xaliča-Ø	iatak-s	mtlianad	Ø-par-av-s
carpet- nom	floor- dat	fully	do 3-cover- sm - s 3 sg
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember Ø-a-xs-ov-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	is	saxl-i	k'arg-ad	Ø-a-xs-ov-s
pn - dat	dem . dist _ nom	house- nom	good- adv	io 3- ver : sup -remember- r . ext - s 3 sg
‘Petre remembers that house well.’

77. help da-Ø-e-xmar-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	da-Ø-e-xmar-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv :downward- io 3- ver : r -help- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre helped Masho.’
Note: da-Ø-e-xmar-a with PRV:downward da- means that the help was provided by a superior to an inferior. When both the provider and the recepient are on an equal ground, PRV:PROX mo- is used.

78. understand (language) Ø-e-sm-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	prangul-i	Ø-e-sm-i-s
pn - dat	f rench- nom	io 3- ver : r -hear- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre understands French.’

79. hit (target) da-Ø-e-c-em-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

saxl-s	mex-i	da-Ø-e-c-a
house- dat	lightning- nom	prv :downward- io 3- ver : r -hit- s 3 sg . pst
‘Lightning struck the house.’
Note: A lightning 'falls' on a house. Other instances of hitting a target while throwing or shooting at it are expressed by the verb mo-Ø-xvd-eb-a [PRV:PROX-IO3-meet-SM-S3SG.INACT] 'X will hit Y'.

80. cut oneself ga-Ø-i-č'r-i-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_INS

X: ERG

Y: INS

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	samartebl-it	saxe-Ø	ga-Ø-i-č'r-a
pn - erg	razor- ins	face- nom	prv :outward- do 3- ver : s -cut- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre cut himself with a razor.’
Note: The overt mentioning of ‘face’ is optional.

81. get stuck mi-Ø-e-k'vr-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

č'ika-Ø	magida-s	mi-Ø-e-k'r-a
glass- nom	table- dat	prv : dist - io 3- ver : r -attach- s 3 sg . pst
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) c'a-Ø-a-g-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT.SOC

X: ERG

Y: DAT.SOC

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	mašo-s-tan	č'adrak'-ši	[tamaš-i]	c'a-Ø-a-g-o
pn - erg	pn - dat - pstp : soc	chess- pstp : iness	[game- nom ]	prv :away- io 3- ver : n -lose- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre lost to Masho at chess.’
Note: “The game” can be omitted.

83. be glad ga-Ø-u-xar-d-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	c'eril-i	ga-Ø-u-xar-d-a
pn - dat	letter- nom	prv :outward- io 3- ver : o -be_glad- intr - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre was glad about the letter.’

84. speak Ø-e-lap'arak'-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-e-lap'arak'-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -talk- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is speaking with Masho.’

85. give birth ga-Ø-a-čen-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

mašo-m	bič'-i	ga-Ø-a-čin-a
pn - erg	boy- nom	prv :outward- do 3- fact -bear- s 3 sg . pst
‘Masho gave birth to a son.’

86. drop da-Ø-u-vard-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	č'ika-Ø	da-Ø-u-vard-a
pn - dat	glass- nom	prv :downward- io 3- ver : o -fall- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre dropped the glass.’

87. govern Ø-mart-av-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-Ø	čven-s	sopel-s	Ø-mart-av-s
pn - nom	our- dat	village- dat	do 3-rule- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre runs our village.’

88. miss Ø-e-nat'r-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-Ø	Ø-e-nat'r-eb-a
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : r -wish- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre misses Masho.’

89. follow mi-h-q'v-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	mi-h-q'v-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : dist - io 3-follow- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre follows Masho.’

90. dismount ča-mo-Ø-xt'-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS.ABL

X: NOM

Y: INS.ABL

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	cxen-idan	ča-mo-Ø-xt'-a
pn - nom	horse- pstp : ins . abl	prv :downward+inward- prv : prox - s 3-jump- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre got down from the horse.’

91. listen Ø-u-sm-en-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	radio-s	Ø-u-sm-en-s
pn - nom	radio- dat	io 3- ver : o -hear- r . ext - s 3 sg
‘Petre is listening to radio.’

92. obey Ø-e-morčil-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	deda-s	q'oveltvis	Ø-e-morčil-eb-a
pn - nom	mother- dat	always	io 3- ver : r -submit- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre always obeys his mother.’

93. hear Ø-e-sm-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	musik'a-Ø	Ø-e-sm-i-s
pn - dat	music- nom	io 3- ver : r -hear- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre hears the music.’

94. mix še-Ø-e-rev-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

tapl-i	rʒe-s	še-Ø-e-ri-a
honey- nom	milk- dat	prv :inward- io 3- ver : r -blend- s 3 sg . pst
‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’

95. look Ø-u-q'ur-eb-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	γrubl-eb-s	Ø-u-q'ur-eb-s
pn - nom	cloud- pl - dat	io 3- ver : o -look_at- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off ga-Ø-i-xd-i-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	p'erang-i	ga-Ø-i-xad-a
pn - erg	shirt- nom	prv :outward- do 3- ver : s -(un)dress- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) Ø-e-sizmr-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-Ø	Ø-e-sizmr-eb-a
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : r -dream- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre dreams about Masho.’

98. agree da-Ø-e-tanxm-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	da-Ø-e-tanxm-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv :downward- io 3- ver : r -agree- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre agreed with Masho.’

99. have a quarrel Ø-e-čxub-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-e-čxub-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -fight- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre had a quarrel with Masho.’

100. cost Ø-γir-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.AGR)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.AGR)

Locus: Y

es	č'ika-Ø	ert-i	dolar-i	Ø-γir-s
dem . prox _ nom	glass- nom	one- nom	dollar- nom	s 3-cost- s 3 sg
‘This cup costs one dollar.’
Note: Due to its argument alignment properties, this verb is often treated among copulas.

101. shoot at Ø-e-srvr-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	čit'-s	Ø-e-sr-ol-a,	magram	a-Ø-a-cil-a
pn - erg	bird- dat	io 3- ver : r -shoot- r . ext - s 3 sg . pst	but	prv :upward- io 3- ver : sup -avoid- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre shot at the bird, but he missed.’

102. pour ča-Ø-i-q'r-i-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	č'ika-ši	šakar-i	ča-Ø-i-q'ar-a
pn - erg	glass- pstp : iness	sugar- nom	prv :downward+inward- do 3- ver : s -cast- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre poured the sugar into the glass.’

103. lose da-Ø-k'arg-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	gasaγeb-i	da-Ø-k'arg-a
pn - erg	key- nom	prv :downward- do 3-lose- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre lost his keys.’

104. sink ča-Ø-i-ʒir-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT.INESS

X: NOM

Y: DAT.INESS

Locus: Y

mor-i	c'q'al-ši	ča-Ø-i-ʒir-a
log- nom	water- pstp : iness	prv :downward+inward- s 3- ver : s -sink- s 3 sg . pst
‘The log sank in the water.’
Note: This verb refers to inanimates. Animates require the verb da-Ø-i-xrč-ob-s [PRV:downward-S3-drown-SM-S3SG] 'X will drown'.

105. kill mo-Ø-k'l-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	mašo-Ø	mo-Ø-k'l-a
pn - erg	pn - nom	prv : prox - do 3-kill- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre killed Masho.’

106. hit da-Ø-a-rt'q'-am-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	mašo-s	xel-i	da-Ø-a-rt'q'-a
pn - erg	pn - dat	hand- nom	prv :downward- do 3- ver : n -strike- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre hit Masho.’

107. kiss Ø-a-k'oc-eb-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	mašo-s	loq'a-ze	Ø-a-k'oc-a
pn - erg	pn - dat	cheek- pstp : subl	io 3- ver : sup -kiss- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre kissed Masho on the cheek.’

108. read c'a-Ø-i-k'itx-av-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	saint'ereso-Ø	c'ign-i	c'a-Ø-i-k'itx-a
pn - erg	interesting- nom	book- nom	prv :away- s 3- ver : s -read- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) ga-Ø-a-nʒrev-s (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

p'et're-m	tit-i	ga-Ø-a-nʒri-a
pn - erg	finger- nom	prv :outward- do 3- fact -move- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre moved his finger.’

110. respect p'at'iv-s s-c-em-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	p'at'iv-s	s-c-em-s
pn - nom	pn - dat	respect- dat	io 3-give- r . ext - s 3 sg
‘Petre respects Masho.’

111. be squeamish Ø-e-zizγ-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	č'uč'q'ian-i	č'urč'el-i	Ø-e-zizγ-eb-a
pn - dat	dirty- nom	plates&dishes- nom	io 3- ver : r -be_squeamish- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is squeamish about dirty dishes.’

112. be content k'maq'opil-i ar-i-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	tavis-i	važ-it	k'maq'opil-i=a
pn - nom	poss - b	son- ins	satisfied_ ptcp - nom = cop
‘Petre is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love še-Ø-u-q'var-d-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-Ø	še-Ø-u-q'var-d-a
pn - dat	pn - nom	prv :inward- io 3- ver : o -love- inch - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre fell in love with Masho.’

114. trust Ø-e-nd-ob-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-e-nd-ob-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -trust- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre trusts Masho.’

115. sympathise Ø-e-cod-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	deda-Ø	Ø-e-cod-eb-a
pn - dat	mother- nom	io 3- ver : r -pity- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre sympathises with his mother.’

116. envy Ø-šur-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN

X: DAT

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

p'et're-s	mašo-si	Ø-šur-s
pn - dat	pn - gen	io 3-envy- s 3 sg
‘Petre envies Masho.’
Note: An insertion of a NOM argument, such as švil-i [child-NOM] is not ruled out here; in this instance, the sentence would read as 'Petre is envious of Masho's child'.

117. be angry Ø-u-braz-d-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-s	Ø-u-braz-d-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : o -be_angry- intr - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is angry at Masho.’

118. be surprised ga-Ø-u-k'vir-d-eb-a

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-s-gan	aset-i	sačukar-i	ga-Ø-u-k'vir-d-a
pn - dat	pn - gen - pstp : abl	adj . dem . prox - nom	gift- nom	prv :outward- io 3- ver : o -be_surprised- intr - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre was surprised by such a gift from Masho.’

119. love (tea) Ø-u-q'var-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	Ø-u-q'var-s	čai-Ø
pn - dat	io 3- ver : o -love- s 3 sg	tea- nom
‘Petre loves tea.’

120. enjoy Ø-t'k'b-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	cxel-i	čai-t	Ø-t'k'b-eb-a
pn - nom	hot- b	tea- ins	s 3-delight- sm - s 3 gs . inact
‘Petre enjoys hot tea.’

121. want Ø-u-nd-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	axal-i	mobilur-i	Ø-u-nd-a
pn - dat	new- nom	cell_phone- nom	io 3- ver : o -want- s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge Ø-braz-ob-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT.SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-ze	Ø-braz-ob-s
pn - nom	pn - pstp : superess	s 3-be_angry- sm - s 3 sg
‘Petre is angry with Masho.’

123. take offence s-c'q'in-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN.ABL

X: DAT

Y: GEN.ABL

Locus: XY

p'et're-s	mašo-s-gan	Ø-e-c'q'in-a
pn - dat	pn - gen - pstp : abl	io 3- ver : r -offend- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre took offence at Masho.’

124. upset Ø-a-c'q'en-in-eb-s (PRS/FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

p'et're-m	mašo-s	ʒalian	Ø-a-c'q'en-in-a
pn - erg	pn - dat	very	io 3- caus -break- caus - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre greatly upset Masho.’

125. marvel aγ-Ø-prtovan-d-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	am	kalak-it	aγ-Ø-prtovan-d-a
pn - nom	attr . dem . prox _ obl	city- ins	prv :upward- s 3-admire- intr - s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre was impressed by this town.’

126. despise s-ʒag-s (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

p'et're-s	mašo-Ø	s-ʒag-s
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3-despise- s 3 sg
‘Petre despises of Masho.’

127. get upset gul-gat'exil-i da-Ø-rč-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_GENgamo

X: NOM

Y: GENgamo

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	važ-is	gamo	gul-gat'exil-i	da-Ø-rč-a
pn - nom	son- gen	because	heart-broken- nom	prv :downward- s 3-stay- s 3 sg . pst
‘Petre got upset because of his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (participle). Y is part of an adjunct and its expression can vary.

128. get irritated ga-Ø-γizian-d-eb-a (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT.SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	tavis	kališvil-ze	Ø-γizian-d-eb-a
pn - nom	poss	daughter- pstp : superess	prv :outward- s 3-annoy- intr - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is getting irritated with his daughter.’

129. be fond Ø-giž-d-eb-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT.SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: DAT.SUPERESS

Locus: Y

p'et're-Ø	mašo-ze	Ø-giž-d-eb-a
pn - nom	pn - pstp : superess	s 3-go_crazy- intr - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is fond of Masho.’
Note: The translation is approximate.

130. be shy s-cxven-i-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN

X: DAT

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

p'et're-s	tavis-i	simaγl-is	s-cxven-i-a
pn - dat	poss - b	height- gen	io 3-be_ashamed- stat - s 3 sg . inact
‘Petre is ashamed of his height.’