Japanese

Contributed by Yukari Konuma and Artemii Kuznetsov

A.K.'s photo

The Japanese data were initially provided and analyzed by Yukari Konuma in her capacity as a native speaker in 2011. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used at this stage. In 2026, the dataset was significantly reannotated based on Artemii Kuznetsov’s input, including corpus evidence, elicitation from native speakers, etc. The English version of the questionnaire was used at this stage.

The data are presented in modified Hepburn romanisation. Long vowels are marked with a macron (Tarō, kōkan), except for long i in native words, which is written ii (utsukushii). Morpheme boundaries within verbal and adjectival forms are marked by hyphens.

How to cite

Konuma, Yukari & Artemii Kuznetsov. 2026. Bivalent patterns in Japanese. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on June 11, 2026; last revised on October 26, 2026.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Coordinates: 35.0, 135.0.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Japanese, genus: Japanese.
Macro-area: East and Southeast Asia.

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Japanese is a verb-final language with dependent marking. Grammatical relations are expressed by postpositional particles (case markers), and the verb does not index its arguments. In the basic transitive construction, the A-argument is marked by the nominative ga and the P-argument by the accusative o, as in (1).

(1)  Tarō  ga   ishi   o    nage-ta
     PN    NOM  stone  ACC  throw-PST
     ‘Tarō threw a stone.’

The main difficulty in identifying valency patterns in Japanese comes from the topic marker wa. A topicalised argument that would otherwise be marked by ga or o loses its case marker and is marked by wa alone, as in (2). Other case markers may be retained and combine with wa, as in (3).

(2)  Tarō  wa   ringo  o    tabe-ta
     PN    TOP  apple  ACC  eat-PST
     ‘Tarō ate an apple.’

(3)  Tarō  ni   wa   furansu-go       ga   wakar-u
     PN    DAT  TOP  France-language  NOM  understand-NPST
     ‘Tarō understands French.’

The most natural rendering of most questionnaire sentences topicalises the X-argument. As a result, a single example does not always show how the verb would encode its arguments in a neutral context. The valency patterns in the database reflect this neutral, non-topicalised encoding rather than the surface form of the example cited.

For most verbs the neutral encoding is easy to establish. It is less clear for predicates that take two non-oblique arguments, mostly experiential verbs and adjectives, e.g. kowai ‘be afraid’ (#3), suki da ‘love’ (#46) and kikoeru ‘hear’ (#93). In neutral contexts these predicates occur in double-nominative (ga … ga) or dative-nominative (ni … ga) constructions.

For these cases we ran a questionnaire survey with 15 native speakers. Each clause in question was embedded in a relative clause, a context that disallows the topic marker, and speakers chose between the possible encodings. Further doubtful cases, where competing constructions exist, were checked against the Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ; Maekawa et al. 2014). The survey results and corpus counts are summarised in the database-internal comments to the relevant items.

To determine which argument is the subject, we used exaltation, i.e. the ability of an argument to control honorific and humble forms of the predicate. This is a standard subjecthood diagnostic for Japanese (Shibatani 1990). We use “exaltation” as an umbrella term for both honorification and humility. In the labels of valency patterns, (EXALT) and (NO.EXALT) indicate whether an argument does or does not control exaltation. For example:

• In NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT) (#3), both arguments are in the nominative, but only X behaves as a subject.

• In DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT) (#93), the dative experiencer is the subject.

• In NOM(NO.EXALT)_NOM (#1), the subject is the nominative Y.

Only the NOM_ACC pattern is classified as transitive (TR).

Case system

Case is marked by enclitic postpositional particles. Ten cases are distinguished:

• nominative ga

• accusative o

• dative ni

• genitive no (adnominal only)

• instrumental de

• comitative to

• ablative kara

• allative e

• terminative made

• comparative yori

The particle to also introduces quotations, hence the label QUOT (#51). The topic marker wa and the focal particle mo are not treated as cases. The complex marker N no koto o ‘the matter of N’ is treated as a separate encoding device (pattern NOM_no.koto.o, #25).

Verb lemmas

Verbs and adjectives are cited in their dictionary (non-past affirmative) form, adjectival nouns with the copula da, and verbal nouns with the light verb suru.

References

Maekawa, Kikuo, Makoto Yamazaki, Toshinobu Ogiso, Takehiko Maruyama, Hideki Ogura, Wakako Kashino, Hanae Koiso, Masaya Yamaguchi, Makiro Tanaka & Yasuharu Den. 2014. Balanced corpus of contemporary written Japanese. Language Resources and Evaluation 48(2). 345–371.

Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1990. The languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Glossing abbreviations

ABL — ablative; ACC — accusative; ADV — adverbial; AUX — auxiliary; CAUS — causative; COM — comitative; COP — copula; CVB — converb; DAT — dative; GEN — genitive; HON — honorific; HOR — hortative; IMPFV — imperfective; INS — instrumental; NEG — negative; NMLZ — nominaliser; NOM — nominative; NPST — non-past; PASS — passive; PL — plural; PN — person name; PST — past; QUOT — quotative; SG — singular; TOP — topic; VBZ — verbalizer.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain itai

Valency pattern: NOM(NO.EXALT)_NOM

X: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Y: NOM

Locus: X

watashi	wa	atama	ga	ita-i
i	top	head	nom	ache- npst
‘I have a headache.’

2. have (illness) kakaru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	infuruenza	ni	kakat-te-i-ru
pn	top	flu	dat	come_down_with- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro has the flu.’

3. be afraid kowai

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

watashi	wa	inu	ga	kowa-i
i	top	dog	nom	be_afraid- npst
‘I am afraid of the dog.’
Note: The nominative stimulus fails to control exaltation, indicating non-canonical subjecthood.

4. throw nageru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	ga	ishi	o	nage-ta
pn	nom	stone	acc	throw- pst
‘Taro threw a stone.’

5. have enough jūbun aru

Valency pattern: DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: DAT(EXALT)

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: XY

Tarō	ni	wa	o-kane	ga	jūbun	ar-u
pn	dat	top	hon -money	nom	enough	be- npst
‘Taro has enough money.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

6. resemble niru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	ni-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	dat	resemble- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro resembles Hanako.’

7. believe shinjiru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	shinji-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	believe- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro believes Hanako.’

8. take toru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	hon	o	tot-ta
pn	top	book	acc	take- pst
‘Taro took a book.’

9. see mieru

Valency pattern: DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: DAT(EXALT)

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: XY

Tarō	ni	wa	ie	ga	mie-te-i-ru
pn	dat	top	house	nom	be_visible- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro sees a house.’

10. influence eikyō suru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

nenrei	wa	kioku	ni	eikyō	su-ru
age	top	memory	dat	influence	vbz - npst
‘Age influences memory.’

11. encounter au

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	at-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	meet- pst
‘Taro encountered Hanako.’

12. enter hairu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	ie	ni	hait-ta
pn	top	house	dat	enter- pst
‘Taro entered the house.’

13. win katsu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	kat-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	win- pst
‘Taro beat Hanako.’

14. go out deru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	ie	o	de-ta
pn	top	house	acc	go_out- pst
‘Taro went out of the house.’

15. drive ou

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	ushi	o	ot-te-i-ru
pn	top	cow	acc	drive- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is driving the cow.’

16. bend mageru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	eda	o	mage-ta
pn	top	branch	acc	bend- pst
‘Taro bent the branch.’

17. tell iu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	it-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	say- pst
‘Taro told Hanako.’

18. hold motsu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	hon	o	mot-te-i-ru
pn	top	book	acc	hold- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is holding a book.’

19. catch up oitsuku

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	oitsui-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	catch_up- pst
‘Taro caught up with Hanako.’

20. milk chichi o shiboru

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Tarō	wa	ushi	no	chichi	o	shibot-ta
pn	top	cow	gen	milk	acc	squeeze- pst
‘Taro milked the cow.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

21. reach tsuku

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	kishi	ni	tsui-ta
pn	top	shore	dat	reach- pst
‘Taro reached the bank.’

22. touch fureru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	kabe	ni	fure-ta
pn	top	wall	dat	touch- pst
‘Taro touched the wall.’

23. fight kenka suru

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

Tarō	ga	Hanako	to	kenka	shi-te-i-ru
pn	nom	pn	com	fight	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is fighting with Hanako.’

24. be friends shitashiku suru

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	to	shitashi-ku	shi-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	com	friendly- adv	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is friends with Hanako.’

25. think kangaeru

Valency pattern: NOM_no.koto.o

X: NOM

Y: no.koto.o

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	no	koto	o	kangae-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	gen	matter	acc	think- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is thinking about Hanako.’

26. eat taberu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	ringo	o	tabe-ta
pn	top	apple	acc	eat- pst
‘Taro ate an apple.’

27. fry yaku

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	sakana	o	yai-ta
pn	top	fish	acc	fry- pst
‘Taro fried the fish.’

28. wait matsu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	mat-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	wait- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is waiting for Hanako.’

29. forget wasureru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	hoka	no	michi	o	wasure-ta
pn	top	other	gen	road	acc	forget- pst
‘Taro forgot the other road.’

30. depend yoru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

kiokuryoku	wa	nenrei	ni	yor-u
memory	top	age	dat	depend- npst
‘Memory depends on age.’

31. call yobu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	yon-da
pn	top	pn	acc	call- pst
‘Taro called Hanako.’

32. get to know shiriau

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	to	ichi-nen	mae	ni	shiriat-ta
pn	top	pn	com	one-year	earlier	dat	get_acquainted- pst
‘Taro got to know Hanako a year ago.’

33. know shiru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	shit-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	get_to_know- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro knows Hanako.’

34. play (instrument) hiku

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	gitā	o	hii-te-i-ru
pn	top	guitar	acc	play- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid sakeru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	sake-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	avoid- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro avoids Hanako.’

36. make tsukuru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	nezumitori	o	tsukut-ta
pn	top	mousetrap	acc	make- pst
‘Taro made a mousetrap.’

37. make fun ijimeru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	ijime-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	make_fun- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is making fun of Hanako.’

38. have motsu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	kuruma	o	mot-te-i-ru
pn	top	car	acc	have- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro has a car.’

39. look for sagasu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	kagi	o	sagashi-te-i-ru
pn	top	key	acc	look_for- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is looking for the keys.’

40. paint nuru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	hei	o	nut-ta
pn	top	fence	acc	paint- pst
‘Taro painted the fence.’

41. bite kamu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

inu	ga	Tarō	o	kan-da
dog	nom	pn	acc	bite- pst
‘A dog bit Taro.’

42. forfeit ushinau

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	ie	o	ushinat-ta
pn	top	house	acc	forfeit- pst
‘Taro lost his house.’

43. try to catch tsukamaeru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	neko	o	tsukamae-yō	to	shi-te-i-ru
pn	top	cat	acc	catch- hor	quot	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break oru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	bō	o	ot-ta
pn	top	stick	acc	break- pst
‘Taro broke a stick.’

45. flatter oseji o iu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	o-seji	o	it-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	dat	hon -compliment	acc	tell- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is flattering Hanako.’

46. love (person) suki da

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ga	suki	da
pn	top	pn	nom	beloved	cop . npst
‘Taro loves Hanako.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

47. wave furu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	ga	hankachi	o	fut-te-i-ru
pn	nom	handkerchief	acc	wave- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream yumemiru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	shinsha	o	yumemi-te-i-ru
pn	top	new_car	acc	dream- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is dreaming of a new car.’

49. wash arau

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	chawan	o	arat-ta
pn	top	cup	acc	wash- pst
‘Taro washed the cup.’

50. put on haku

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	zubon	o	hai-ta
pn	top	trousers	acc	put_on- pst
‘Taro put on his trousers.’

51. be called iu

Valency pattern: NOM_QUOT

X: NOM

Y: QUOT

Locus: Y

kono	dōgu	wa	Konpasu	to	i-u
this	instrument	top	compass	quot	call- npst
‘This instrument is called a compass.’

52. punish bassuru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	jibun	no	musuko	o	basshi-ta
pn	top	self	gen	son	acc	punish- pst
‘Taro punished his son.’

53. attack osou

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

kuma	ga	tsuribito	o	osot-ta
bear	nom	fisherman	acc	attack- pst
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) mitasareru

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

baketsu	wa	mizu	de	mitasa-re-ta
bucket	top	water	ins	fill- pass - pst
‘The bucket filled with water.’
Note: This is a passive construction.

55. find mitsukeru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	kagi	o	mitsuke-ta
pn	top	key	acc	find- pst
‘Taro found his keys.’

56. be short tariru + NEG

Valency pattern: DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: DAT(EXALT)

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: XY

Tarō	ni	wa	ichi-doru	tari-nai
pn	dat	top	one-dollar	be_enough- neg
‘Taro is one dollar short.’
Note: The numeral phrase “ichi-doru” ‘one dollar’ takes no case marker. The label NOM(NO.EXALT) is based on the variant with an ordinary noun, cf. “Tarō ni wa o-kane ga tari-nai” ‘Tarō is short of money’.

57. hate kirai da

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ga	kirai	da
pn	top	pn	nom	disliked	cop . npst
‘Taro hates Hanako.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

58. like ki ni iru

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	kono	shatsu	ga	ki	ni	it-te-i-ru
pn	top	this	shirt	nom	mood	dat	enter- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro likes this shirt.’

59. need iru

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	o-kane	ga	ir-u
pn	top	hon -money	nom	need- npst
‘Taro needs money.’

60. surround kakomu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

kabe	ga	machi	o	kakon-de-i-ru
wall	nom	town	acc	surround- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Walls surround the town.’

61. remain nokoru

Valency pattern: DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: DAT(EXALT)

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: XY

Tarō	ni	wa	jū-doru	nokot-te-i-ru
pn	dat	top	ten-dollar	remain- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro has ten dollars left.’
Note: The numeral phrase “jū-doru” ‘ten dollars’ takes no case marker. The label NOM(NO.EXALT) is based on the variant with an ordinary noun, cf. “Tarō ni wa ie ga nokot-te-i-ru” ‘Tarō still has his house’.

62. answer kotaeru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	sensei	ni	kotae-ta
pn	top	teacher	dat	answer- pst
‘Taro answered the teacher.’

63. open akeru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	kan	o	ake-ta
pn	top	can	acc	open- pst
‘Taro opened a can.’

64. be different chigau

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

boku	no	shatsu	wa	kimi	no	to	wa	chigat-te-i-ru
i	gen	shirt	top	you( sg )	nmlz	com	top	be_different- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘My shirt is different from yours.’

65. fall behind okureru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	okure-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	fall_behind- pst
‘Taro fell behind Hanako.’

66. plough tagayasu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	hatake	o	tagayashi-te-i-ru
pn	top	field	acc	plough- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is ploughing the field.’

67. smell nioi ga suru

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

watashi	no	te	wa	gasorin	no	nioi	ga	su-ru
i	gen	hand	top	gasoline	gen	smell	nom	vbz - npst
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

68. cross wataru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	michi	o	watat-ta
pn	top	road	acc	cross- pst
‘Taro crossed the road.’

69. sing utau

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	utsukushii	uta	o	utat-ta
pn	top	beautiful	song	acc	sing- pst
‘Taro sang a beautiful song.’

70. write kaku

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	tegami	o	kai-ta
pn	top	letter	acc	write- pst
‘Taro wrote a letter.’

71. drink nomu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	gyūnyū	o	non-da
pn	top	milk	acc	drink- pst
‘Taro drank the milk.’

72. melt tokasu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	namari	no	katamari	o	tokashi-ta
pn	top	lead	gen	piece	acc	melt- pst
‘Taro melted a piece of lead.’

73. match au

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

kono	beruto	wa	watashi	no	wanpīsu	ni	a-u
this	belt	top	i	gen	dress	dat	match- npst
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’

74. leave saru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	kokyō	no	machi	o	sat-ta
pn	top	homeland	gen	town	acc	leave- pst
‘Taro left his native town.’

75. cover ōu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

jūtan	wa	yuka	zentai	o	ōt-te-i-ru
carpet	top	floor	all	acc	cover- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember oboeru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	ie	o	yoku	oboe-te-i-ru
pn	top	house	acc	well	remember- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro remembers the house well.’

77. help tetsudau

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	tetsudat-ta
pn	top	pn	acc	help- pst
‘Taro helped Hanako.’

78. understand (language) wakaru

Valency pattern: DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: DAT(EXALT)

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: XY

Tarō	ni	wa	furansu-go	ga	wakar-u
pn	dat	top	f rance-language	nom	understand- npst
‘Taro understands French.’

79. hit (target) ochiru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

kaminari	ga	ie	ni	ochi-ta
lightning	nom	house	dat	fall- pst
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself kega suru

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	kamisori	de	kega	shi-ta
pn	top	razor	ins	wound	vbz - pst
‘Taro cut himself with a razor.’

81. get stuck kuttsuku

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

koppu	ga	tēburu	ni	kuttsui-ta
glass	nom	table	dat	stick- pst
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) makeru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	make-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	lose- pst
‘Taro lost to Hanako.’

83. be glad yorokobu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	tegami	ni	yorokon-da
pn	top	letter	dat	rejoice- pst
‘Taro was glad about the letter.’

84. speak hanasu

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

Tarō	ga	Hanako	to	hanashi-te-i-ru
pn	nom	pn	com	talk- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is speaking with Hanako.’

85. give birth umu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Hanako	wa	otoko	no	ko	o	un-da
pn	top	man	gen	child	acc	give_birth- pst
‘Hanako gave birth to a son.’

86. drop otosu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	koppu	o	otoshi-ta
pn	top	glass	acc	drop- pst
‘Taro dropped the glass.’

87. govern kanri suru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	ware~ware	no	machi	o	kanri	shi-te-i-ru
pn	top	i ~ pl	gen	town	acc	management	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro runs our town.’

88. miss koishii

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

watashi	wa	Hanako	ga	koishi-i
i	top	pn	nom	miss- npst
‘I miss Hanako.’

89. follow tsuiteiku

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	tsuiteik-u
pn	top	pn	dat	follow- npst
‘Taro follows Hanako.’

90. dismount oriru

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL

X: NOM

Y: ABL

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	uma	kara	ori-ta
pn	top	horse	abl	go_down- pst
‘Taro got down from the horse.’

91. listen kiku

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	rajio	o	kii-te-i-ru
pn	top	radio	acc	listen- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is listening to radio.’

92. obey iu koto o kiku

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Tarō	wa	hahaoya	no	i-u	koto	o	kik-u
pn	top	mother	gen	say- npst	matter	acc	listen- npst
‘Taro listens to what his mother is saying.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause.

93. hear kikoeru

Valency pattern: DAT(EXALT)_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: DAT(EXALT)

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: XY

Tarō	ni	wa	ongaku	ga	kikoe-te-i-ru
pn	dat	top	music	nom	be_audible- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro hears the music.’

94. mix mazaru

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

hachimitsu	wa	gyūnyū	to	mazat-ta
honey	top	milk	com	mix- pst
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look miru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	amagumo	o	mi-te-i-ru
pn	top	cloud	acc	look- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off nugu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	shatsu	o	nui-da
pn	top	shirt	acc	take_off- pst
‘Taro took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) yume ni arawareru

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Tarō	no	yume	ni	Hanako	ga	araware-ru
pn	gen	dream	dat	pn	nom	emerge- npst
‘Hanako appears in Taro’s dream.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

98. agree sansei suru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	sansei	shi-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	agreement	vbz - pst
‘Taro agreed with Hanako.’

99. have a quarrel kōron suru

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	to	kōron	shi-ta
pn	top	pn	com	quarrel	vbz - pst
‘Taro had a quarrel with Hanako.’

100. cost kakaru

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

kono	kuruma	wa	taikin	ga	kakar-u
this	car	top	fortune	nom	cost- npst
‘This car costs a fortune.’

101. shoot at utsu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	tori	o	ut-ta
pn	top	bird	acc	shoot- pst
‘Taro shot at the bird.’

102. pour ireru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	satō	o	ire-ta
pn	top	sugar	acc	put_in- pst
‘Taro poured the sugar.’

103. lose nakusu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	kagi	o	nakushi-ta
pn	top	key	acc	lose- pst
‘Taro lost the key.’

104. sink shizumu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

takigi	wa	mizu	ni	shizun-da
log	top	water	dat	sink- pst
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill korosu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	koroshi-ta
pn	top	pn	acc	kill- pst
‘Taro killed Hanako.’

106. hit naguru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	nagut-ta
pn	top	pn	acc	hit- pst
‘Taro hit Hanako.’

107. kiss kuchizuke suru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	kuchizuke	shi-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	kiss	vbz - pst
‘Taro kissed Hanako.’

108. read yomu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	omoshiroi	hon	o	yon-da
pn	top	interesting	book	acc	read- pst
‘Taro read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) ugokasu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	yubi	o	ugokashi-ta
pn	top	finger	acc	move- pst
‘Taro moved his finger.’

110. respect sonkei suru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	sonkei	shi-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	respect	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro respects Hanako.’

111. be squeamish iya da

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

watashi	wa	kitanai	shokki	ga	iya	da
i	top	dirty	dishes	nom	squeamish	cop . npst
‘I am squeamish about dirty dishes.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

112. be content manzoku da

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	jibun	no	musuko	ni	manzoku	da
pn	top	self	gen	son	dat	content	cop . npst
‘Taro is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love koi suru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	koi	shi-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	love	vbz - pst
‘Taro fell in love with Hanako.’

114. trust shin'yō suru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	shin'yō	shi-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	trust	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro trusts Hanako.’

115. sympathise kawaisō da

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	jibun	no	haha	ga	kawaisō	da
pn	top	self	gen	mother	nom	pitiful	cop . npst
‘Taro sympathises with his mother.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

116. envy urayamashii

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

watashi	wa	Hanako	ga	urayamashi-i
i	top	pn	nom	envy- npst
‘I envy Hanako.’
Note: The nominative stimulus fails to control exaltation, indicating non-canonical subjecthood.

117. be angry okoru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	okot-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	dat	be_angry- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is angry with Hanako.’

118. be surprised odoroku

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	sono	purezento	ni	odoroi-ta
pn	top	that	present	dat	be_surprised- pst
‘Taro was surprised at that gift.’

119. love (tea) suki da

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	o-cha	ga	suki	da
pn	top	hon -tea	nom	beloved	cop . npst
‘Taro loves tea.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

120. enjoy tanoshimu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	atsu-i	o-cha	o	tanoshin-de-i-ru
pn	top	hot- npst	hon -tea	acc	enjoy- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro enjoys hot tea.’

121. want hoshii

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.EXALT)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.EXALT)

Locus: Y

watashi	wa	atarashi-i	keitaidenwa	ga	hoshi-i
i	top	new- npst	mobile_phone	nom	want- npst
‘I want a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge okoru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	okot-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	dat	be_angry- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro holds a grudge against Hanako.’

123. take offence okoru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	okot-ta
pn	top	pn	dat	be_angry - pst
‘Taro took offence at Hanako.’

124. upset rakutan saseru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	totemo	rakutan	sa-se-ta
pn	top	pn	acc	very	disappointment	vbz - caus - pst
‘Taro greatly upset Hanako.’
Note: This is a causative construction.

125. marvel odoroku

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	sono	machi	ni	odoroi-ta
pn	top	that	town	dat	be_surprised- pst
‘Taro was impressed by that town.’

126. despise sagesumu

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	Hanako	o	sagesun-de-i-ru
pn	top	pn	acc	despise- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro despises Hanako.’

127. get upset gakkari suru

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	jibun	no	musuko	ni	gakkari	shi-ta
pn	top	self	gen	son	dat	disappointment	vbz - pst
‘Taro got upset with his son.’

128. get irritated iradatsu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	jibun	no	musume	ni	iradat-te-i-ru
pn	top	self	gen	daughter	dat	be_irritated- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is getting irritated with his daughter.’

129. be fond kōkan o motsu

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

Tarō	wa	Hanako	ni	kōkan	o	mot-te-i-ru
pn	top	pn	dat	fondness	acc	have- cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is fond of Hanako.’

130. be shy ki ni suru

Valency pattern: TR

X: NOM

Y: ACC

Locus: TR

Tarō	wa	jibun	no	shinchō	o	ki	ni	shi-te-i-ru
pn	top	self	gen	height	acc	feeling	dat	vbz - cvb - aux . impfv - npst
‘Taro is embarrassed about his height.’