Karata

Contributed by Gilles Authier (Academia.edu profile) and Rashidat Khalidova (elibrary profile)

G.A.'s photo R.Kh.'s photo

The data were collected in 2023 using the Russian version of the questionnaire.

How to cite

Authier, Gilles and Rashidat Khalidova. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Karata. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on February 3, 2024; last revised on December 8, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Coordinates: 42.6, 46.34.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Nakh-Daghestanian, genus: Avar-Andic-Tsezic.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Case marking displays the ergative-nominative alignment. In the basic transitive construction, the A-argument is in the ergative, and the P-argument, in the (unmarked) nominative. The ergative form of nouns does not coincide with the oblique stem. There are three genders. The verb takes gender-number prefixes agreeing with the S/P argument in the nominative. Gender-number agreement is prefixal on vowel-initial verbal roots. Non-core arguments are flagged by oblique case markers or by postpositions.

Case system

There are 5 non-locative cases: nominative, ergative, genitive, dative, comitative. The genitive marker of most masculine-gender nouns and 1st and 2nd person pronouns is a gender-number suffix agreeing with the possessed noun, otherwise the suffix is ƛ (a shortened form of the interessive suffix -ƛi). The system of locative cases consists of two layers: the essive layer with one unmarked and five marked localizations (INTER ‘in a mass’, SUB ‘under’, SUPER ‘on’, CONT ‘at, beside’, APUD ‘at, near’), and three directions (unmarked ‘essive’, lative and elative), as shown in Table 1. The combination of the lative direction and the CONT localization is not possible. This yields 17 locative combinations and 22 cases in all. The case glosses in the dataset below transaparently correspond to the two-layered structure of case markers except for the combination of the localization AD and essive direction, which is exceptionally glossed as “LOC”.

Table 1. Karata case forms

	AD	INTER	SUB	SUPER	CONT	APUD
(essive)	-i / -aa	-ƛi	-ƛ’:i	-ƛ’a	-č’o	-q
lative	-i-r / -aa-r	-ƛi-r	-ƛ’:i-r	-ƛ’a-r		-xa-r
elative	-i-gal / -a-gal	-ƛi-gal	-ƛ’:i-gal	-ƛ’a-gal	-çogal	-q-igal

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited by their infinitive form, with third gender agreement.

Glossing abbreviations

N — neuter gender, aka class III; HPL — human plural; IPF — imperfective; N — neuter gender, aka class IV; OBL — oblique nominal stem extension; PF — perfective; PN — person name.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain boƛ’aɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_NOM

X: POSS

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕali-b	hera	hadoʔa	b-oƛ’-idja	idja
pn - n	now	head	n -be_sick- ipf	cop
‘Ali has a headache.’
Note: The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

2. have (illness) bexwala

Valency pattern: EXT_NOM

X: EXT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕali	q’wat’ala	b-exw-a	idja
pn	flu	n -come- pf	cop
‘Ali has the flu.’

3. be afraid ɬebaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_CONT

X: NOM

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

ʕali	χwaj-č’o	ɬeb-da
pn	dog- cont	fear- ipf
‘Ali is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw t’amaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	anča	t’am-e
pn - erg	stone	throw- pf
‘Ali threw a stone.’

5. have enough beʔwanɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	ʕarse	b-eʔ-unda	idja
pn . dat	money	n -be_enough- ipf	cop
‘Ali has enough money.’

6. resemble baɬɬanɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	ħažja	w-aɬɬ-on-w	idja
pn	pn . dat	m -resemble- ipf . ptcp - m	cop
‘Ali resembles Hajji.’

7. believe bežwaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-ja	w-ožu-da
pn	pn - dat	m -believe- ipf
‘Ali believes Ahmat.’

8. take bahaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	polk-agal	qoča	b-eh-e
pn - erg	shelf- el	book	n -take- pf
‘Ali took a book from the shelf.’

9. see haʔanɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	misja	haʔ-indja	idja
pn . dat	house	see- ipf	cop
‘Ali sees a house.’

10. influence baʔaɬa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

pahmu	rešin-da-r	b-aʔ-a-b	idja
memory	year- pl . obl - lat	n -come- pf . ptcp - n	cop
‘Memory depends on age.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

11. encounter dande woxaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	aħmat’	dande	w-okku
pn . dat	pn	in_front	m -fall. pf
‘Ali encountered Ahmat.’
Note: dande functions as an adverb here.

12. enter boƛaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_LAT

X: NOM

Y: LAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	eši-r	w-oƛ-e
pn	room. in - lat	m -go- pf
‘Ali entered the room.’

13. win bišanɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_EL

X: NOM

Y: EL

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-jagal	w-uš-an
pn	pn - el	m -win- pf
‘Ali beat Ahmat.’

14. go out heq’er boƛaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPEREL

X: NOM

Y: SUPEREL

Locus: Y

ʕali	q’aj-ƛ’agal	barq’a	heq’e-r	w-oƛ-e
pn	house- superel	fast	up- lat	m -go- pf
‘Ali walked quickly out of the house.’

15. drive q’ot’aaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	zini	žim-jar	q’ot’eeda	idja
pn - erg	cow	grass- lat	drive. ipf	cop
‘Ali is driving the cow to the pasture.’

16. bend q’alaaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	rošila-ƛ	hala	q’ala-a
pn - erg	tree. obl - gen	branch	bend. caus - pf
‘Ali bent the branch.’

17. tell keƛ’ƛ’anɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_LAT

X: ERG

Y: LAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	aħmat’-jar	keƛ’ƛ’-en
pn - erg	pn - lat	say- pf
‘Ali told Ahmat.’

18. hold bikkaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	qoča	kwadi	b-ikk-e	idja
pn - erg	book	hand. in	n -hold- pf	cop
‘Ali is holding a book in his hands.’

19. catch up χirχir baʔaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	marjam-ja	χirχi-r	w-aʔ-a
pn	pn - dat	behind- lat	m -come- pf
‘Ali caught up with Marjam.’
Note: Here, “χirχir” arguably functions as part of the predicate.

20. milk ƛ’ƛ’araɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	zini	ƛ’ƛ’ar-e
pn - erg	cow	milk- pf
‘Ali milked the cow.’

21. reach baʔaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPERLAT

X: NOM

Y: SUPERLAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	reɬa	raʕaj-ƛ’ar	w-aʔ-a
pn	sea	shore- superlat	m -come- pf
‘Ali reached the shore.’

22. touch čorokɬaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_INTER

X: NOM

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

ʕali	q’in-ƛi	un-jewχwa	čorokɬ-e
pn	wall- inter	lean- pf . m . cv	become_dirty- pf
‘Ali touched the wall and got dirty.’

23. fight torč’č’anɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-i-k’el	torč’č’-indja	idja
pn	pn - obl - com	strike- ipf	cop
‘Ali is fighting with Ahmat.’

24. be friends čoq’aɬer gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_COM

X: ERG

Y: COM

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	aħmat’-i-k’el	čoq’aɬer	geeda	idja
pn - erg	pn - obl - com	friendship	do. ipf	cop
‘Ali is friends with Ahmat.’

25. think urʁel-ja bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

ʕali	marjam-i-b	urʁel-ja	idja
pn	pn - obl - n	thought- dat	cop
‘Ali is thinking about Marjam.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

26. eat q’amaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	ʕeče	q’am-e
pn - erg	apple	eat- pf
‘Ali ate an apple.’

27. fry bežaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	ččuʕa	b-ež-a
pn - erg	fish	n -fry- aor
‘Ali fried the fish.’

28. wait bek’anɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_APUD

X: NOM

Y: APUD

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmad-i-q	w-ok’-an	w-uʁ-e	idja
pn	pn - obl - apud	m -look- pf	m -stay- pf	cop
‘Ali is waiting for Ahmat.’

29. forget bečečaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	cebal	miq’e	b-ečeč-a	b-iχχu	idja
pn . dat	other. n	road	n -forget- pf	n -remain. pf	cop
‘Ali forgot about the other road.’

30. depend baʔaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_LAT

X: NOM

Y: LAT

Locus: Y

hek’wa-š:u-b	pahmu	rih-jar	b-aʔ-a-b	idja
man- obl . m - n	memory	age- lat	n -come- pf . ptcp - n	cop
‘One’s memory depends on age.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (participle).

31. call k’k’anɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	aħmat’	k’k’-an
pn - erg	pn	call- pf
‘Ali called Ahmat.’

32. get to know ɬaj-qwaj boƛaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_COM

X: POSS

Y: COM

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	aħmat’-i-k’el	ɬaj-qwaj	b-oƛ-e	rešin	ssigi
pn - n	pn - obl - com	acquaintance	n -happen- pf	year	before
‘Ali got to know Ahmat a year ago.’

33. know biʔaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	aħmat’	w-uʔ-idja
pn . dat	pn	m -know- ipf
‘Ali knows Ahmat.’

34. play (instrument) qwaraɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	gitar-a	qwar-da	idja
pn	guitar- dat	scratch- ipf	cop
‘Ali is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid č’č’warč’č’aaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_CONTEL

X: NOM

Y: CONTEL

Locus: Y

ʕali	č’č’warč’č’a-ada	idja	aħmat’-i-č’ogal
pn	flee- ipf	cop	pn - obl - contel
‘Ali avoids Ahmat.’

36. make gahaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	herk’k’wa-da	q’watan	gehe
pn - erg	mouse- pl	trap	do. pf
‘Ali made a mousetrap.’

37. make fun reɬeχχaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_CONTka7agal

X: NOM

Y: CONTka7agal

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-i-č’o	kaʔa-gal	reɬeχχ-idja	idja
pn	pn - obl - cont	up- el	laugh- ipf	cop
‘Ali is making fun of Ahmat.’
Note: Here, “kaʔagal” functions as a postposition.

38. have bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_NOM

X: POSS

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕali-b	mašina	idja
pn - n	car	cop
‘Ali has a car.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

39. look for c’eχχaaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali	rek’ul-di	c’eχχeeda	idja
pn	key- pl	look_for. ipf	cop
‘Ali is looking for his keys.’
Note: This structure is binominative because of the progressive. The verb is transitive.

40. paint lažbar ɬaraɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	q’el-wa	lažbar	ɬar-e
pn - erg	fence- dat	paint	smear- pf
‘Ali painted the fence.’

41. bite q’waraɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

ʕali-č’o	χwaj-l	q’war-e
pn - cont	dog- erg	bite- pf
‘A dog bit Ali.’

42. forfeit hač’e biχχwaɬa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

ʕali	misa	hač’e	w-uχχu
pn	house	cop . neg	m -remain. pf
‘Ali lost his house.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause. At least historically, “hač’e” is a participle, which makes this structure biclausal.

43. try to catch bikkaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali	isso	b-ikk-idja	idja
pn	cat	n -hold- ipf	cop
‘Ali is trying to catch the cat.’
Note: This structure is binominative because of the progressive. The verb is transitive.

44. break biʔwaaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	c’ule	b-iʔwa-a
pn - erg	stick	n -break- pf
‘Ali broke a stick.’

45. flatter recci-maħi gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	marjam-ja	recci-maħi	geeda	idja
pn - erg	pn - dat	flattery	do. ipf	cop
‘Ali is flattering Marjam.’

46. love (person) ƛ’abaɬaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	marjam	ƛ’ab-a
pn . dat	pn	love- pf
‘Ali loves Marjam.’

47. wave xwaʕaaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	korbac’	xwaʕa-jdja	idja
pn - erg	handkerchief	wave- ipf	cop
‘Ali is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream χijal biɬaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_LOC

X: NOM

Y: LOC

Locus: Y

ʕali	c’injo-m	mašin-aa	χijal	b-iɬ-owχwa	idja
pn	new- n	car. obl - loc	hope	n -put- pf . m . cv	cop
‘Ali is dreaming of a new car.’

49. wash bučanɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	kurušk’a	b-uč-an
pn - erg	jug	n -wash- pf
‘Ali washed the jug.’

50. put on keƛ’ƛ’anɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	šarbal	keƛ’ƛ’-en
pn - erg	trousers	put_on- pf
‘Ali put on his trousers.’

51. be called c’c’eri bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: LAT_NOM(NO.AGR)

X: LAT

Y: NOM(NO.AGR)

Locus: XY

ha-b	hedela-ɬjar	c’c’eri	kompas	idja
this- n	thing- obl . lat	name	compass	cop
‘This thing is called a compass.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

52. punish tamiħ gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	waša-š:w-a	tamiħ	gehe
pn - erg	boy- obl - dat	instruct	do. pf
‘Ali punished his son.’

53. attack k’anc’aaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

sin	ččuʕiqan-š:w-a	kaʔa-r	k’anc’ee
bear	fisherman- obl . m - dat	up- lat	jump. pf
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’
Note: Here, “kaʔar” has some properties of a predicate-related element.

54. fill (intr) bec’eɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_POSS

X: NOM

Y: POSS

Locus: Y

bedera	ɬenj-ƛ	b-ec’-e
bucket	water- gen	n -fill- pf
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find bisanɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	rek’ul-di	r-is-an
pn . dat	key- pl	npl -find- pf
‘Ali found his keys.’

56. be short kanɬaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	ceb	dollar	kanɬ-ebχwa	idja
pn . dat	one. n	dollar	miss- pf . n . cv	cop
‘Ali is one dollar short.’

57. hate riχanɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	aħmat’	riχ-anχwa	idja
pn . dat	pn	be_despicable- pf . cv	cop
‘Ali hates Ahmat.’

58. like rak’wal baʔaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	ho-b	gordi	rak’wa-l	b-e-bχwa	idja
pn . dat	3- n	shirt	heart- erg	n -come- n . pf - cv	cop
‘Ali likes this shirt.’

59. need q’oraaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	ʕarse	q’or-a	idja
pn . dat	money	want- pf	cop
‘Ali needs money.’

60. surround bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_ssoreq

X: NOM

Y: ssoreq

Locus: Y

šagar	ssoreq	q’in-di	idja
town	around	wall- pl	cop
‘Walls surround the city.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

61. remain biχχwaɬa

Valency pattern: CONT_NOM

X: CONT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕali-č’o	10	dollar	b-iχχu
pn - cont	10	dollar	n -remain. pf
‘Ali has ten dollars left.’

62. answer džwab bekkaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	ušter-š:w-a	džwab	b-ekk-e
pn - erg	teacher- obl . m - dat	answer	n -give- pf
‘Ali answered the teacher.’

63. open ruhaanɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	banka	ruha-an
pn - erg	jar	open- pf
‘Ali opened a jar.’

64. be different minarob bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_EL

X: NOM

Y: EL

Locus: Y

di-b	gordi	du-ɬ-jagal	minaro-b	idja
1 sg . obl - n	shirt	2 sg . obl - non . m - el	different- n	cop
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind χigi biχχwaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_CONTEL

X: NOM

Y: CONTEL

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-i-č’ogal	biƛ’e	χigi	w-uχχu
pn	pn - obl - contel	strongly	behind	m -remain. pf
‘Ali fell way behind Ahmat.’
Note: Here, “χigi” arguably functions as part of the predicate.

66. plough beƛ’ƛ’aɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali	χure	b-eƛ’ƛ’-idja	idja
pn	field	n -plough- ipf	cop
‘Ali is ploughing the field.’
Note: This structure is binominative because of the progressive. The verb is transitive.

67. smell xwanj bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: EL_POSS

X: EL

Y: POSS

Locus: XY

di-raj	reƛ’a-ba-gal	binzin-i-ƛ	xwanj	idja
1. obl - attr . pl	hand- pl . obl - el	gasoline- obl - gen	smell	cop
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

68. cross boq’aɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	miq’e	b-oq’-e
pn - erg	road	n -cut- pf
‘Ali crossed the road.’

69. sing k’k’aanɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	č’ikoro-b	hanƛ’ƛ’e	k’k’a-an
pn - erg	beautiful- n	song	call- pf
‘Ali sang a beautiful song.’

70. write qwaraɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	kaʁat	qwar-e
pn - erg	paper	write- pf
‘Ali wrote a letter.’

71. drink c’c’araɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	š:iw	c’c’ar-e
pn - erg	milk	drink- pf
‘Ali drank the milk.’

72. melt bic’aaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	t’oše	b-ic’a-a
pn - erg	lead	n -melt. caus - pf
‘Ali melted a piece of lead.’

73. match dande bekkwaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ha-b	račwal	di-b	paltwa	dande	b-ekkuda	idja
this- n	belt	1. obl - n	coat. dat	in_front	n -fall. ipf	cop
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’

74. leave bešdaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	in-š:u-b	da	šahar	b-ešd-a
pn - erg	refl - obl . m - n	ptcl	city	n -leave- pf
‘Ali left his city.’

75. cover bacwaaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

t’ansila-l	gida-b	da	ʁardi-mak’wa	b-acwa-a
carpet. obl - erg	whole- n	ptcl	floor-place	n -cover- pf
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember rak’wa-č’o bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	misa	c’aq’a	rak’wa-č’o	idja
pn . dat	house	well	heart- cont	cop
‘Ali remembers the house well.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

77. help kumak gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	marjam-ja	kumak	geh-e
pn - erg	pn - dat	help	do- pf
‘Ali helped Marjam.’

78. understand (language) b-ič’č’aɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	parank’dilo-b	mac’c’i	bič’č’eda
pn . dat	f rench- n	tongue	understand. ipf
‘Ali understands French.’

79. hit (target) torč’č’anɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

miswa	pire	torč’č’-en
house. dat	lightning	strike- pf
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself boq’aɬa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

ʕali-b	reƛ’a	χχa-ndo-b	hedela-ɬi-l	b-oq’-e
pn - n	hand	shave- ipf . ptcp - n	thing- obl - erg	n -cut- pf
‘The razor cut Ali’s hand.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

81. get stuck t’erkwanɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

istakan	ustul-ja	t’erkw-an	b-iχχu
glass	table- dat	stick- pf	n -remain. pf
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) beʁanɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_CONT

X: NOM

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-i-č’o	w-oʁ-an
pn	pn - obl - cont	m -lose- pf
‘Ali lost to Ahmat.’

83. be glad becceχχaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	kaʁat-wa	w-occeχχ-a
pn	paper- dat	m -be_glad- pf
‘Ali was glad about the letter.’

84. speak ʁwaaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

ʕali	aħmat’-i-k’el	ʁoda	idja
pn	pn - obl - com	talk. ipf	cop
‘Ali is speaking with Ahmat.’

85. give birth gahaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

marjam-i-l	waša	gehe
pn - obl - erg	boy	do. pf
‘Marjam gave birth to a son.’

86. drop t’araɬa

Valency pattern: CONTEL_NOM

X: CONT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕali-č’ogal	istakan	t’ar-e
pn - contel	glass	fall- pf
‘Ali dropped the glass.’

87. govern hadoʔaɬer gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	š:urab	han-ja	hadoʔaɬer	geda	idja
pn - erg	whole	village. obl - dat	leadership	do. ipf	cop
‘Ali runs the whole village.’

88. miss rak’wa t’amaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_APUDLAT

X: POSS

Y: APUDLAT

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	marjam-i-χar	rak’wa	t’am-e	idja
pn - n	pn - obl - adlat	heart	throw- pf	cop
‘Ali misses Marjam.’

89. follow χirχir bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	marjam-ja	χirχi-r	idja
pn	pn - dat	behind- lat	cop
‘Ali follows Marjam.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Here, “χirχir” arguably functions as part of the predicate.

90. dismount rušt’anɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_EL

X: NOM

Y: EL

Locus: Y

ʕali	xwanjagal	rušt’-an
pn	horse. el	dismount- pf
‘Ali got down from the horse.’

91. listen andukaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_APUD

X: NOM

Y: APUD

Locus: Y

ʕali	radio-q	anduk-e	idja
pn	radio- apud	listen- pf	cop
‘Ali is listening to radio.’

92. obey andukaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_APUD

X: NOM

Y: APUD

Locus: Y

ʕali	iljo-q	anduk-idja
pn	mother. obl - apud	listen- ipf
‘Ali listens to his mother.’

93. hear anɬaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	baq’an	anɬ-idja	idja
pn . dat	tune	hear- ipf	cop
‘Ali hears the music.’

94. mix habažwaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

hunc’c’e	š:iw-k’el	habažu
honey	milk- com	n .be_mixed. pf
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look bek’anɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_APUD

X: NOM

Y: APUD

Locus: Y

ʕali	hanƛ’aba-q	w-ok’-an	idja
pn	cloud. pl . obl - apud	m -look- pf	cop
‘Ali is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off boqaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	gordi	b-oq-e
pn - erg	shirt	n -take_out- pf
‘Ali took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) maƛ’ƛ’u-ƛi haʔaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	maƛ’ƛ’u-ƛi	marjam	haʔ-indja
pn . dat	dream- inter	pn	see- ipf
‘Ali dreams about Marjam.’

98. agree kaʔa baq’aɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	marjam-ja	barq’a	kaʔa	w-aq’-e
pn	pn - dat	fast	on	m -fit- pf
‘Ali immediately agreed with Marjam.’

99. have a quarrel t’uraɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_COM

X: NOM

Y: COM

Locus: Y

ʕali	marjam-i-k’el	t’ure-e
pn	pn - obl - com	quarrel- pf
‘Ali had a quarrel with Marjam.’

100. cost baha bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_NOM(NO.AGR)

X: POSS

Y: NOM(NO.AGR)

Locus: XY

ha-b	kuruška-ƛ	baha	ceb	dollar	idja
this- n	mug- gen	price	one. n	dollar	cop
‘This cup costs one dollar.’
Note: The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

101. shoot at torč’č’anɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	š:akibo-č’o	torč’č’-en
pn - erg	bird- cont	strike- pf
‘Ali shot at the bird.’

102. pour t’amaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	kuruška-j-r	čakar	t’am-e
pn - erg	mug- obl - lat	sugar	throw- pf
‘Ali poured the sugar into the mug.’

103. lose betaɬa

Valency pattern: CONTEL_NOM

X: CONTEL

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕali-č’ogal	rek’ul-di	r-et-a
pn - contel	key- pl	npl -lose- pf
‘Ali lost his keys.’

104. sink ʁanq’aaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_INTER

X: NOM

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

ɬuda	ɬenj-ƛi	ʁanq’ee
wood	water- inter	drown. pf
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill k’k’obaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	k’k’ob-e	aħmat’
pn - erg	kill- pf	pn
‘Ali killed Ahmat.’

106. hit č’č’waraɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	aħmat’-i-č’o	č’č’war-e
pn - erg	pn - obl - cont	beat- pf
‘Ali hit Ahmat.’

107. kiss oba gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	marjam-i-č’o	oba	ge-e	gehe
pn - erg	pn - obl - cont	kiss	do- pf	do. pf
‘Ali kissed Marjam.’

108. read c’c’alaaɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	xoho-b	qoča	c’c’alee
pn - erg	good- n	book	read. pf
‘Ali read a good book.’

109. move (bodypart) geraʁeraɬa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

ʕali-l	ɬic’el	gera-ʁer-a
pn - erg	finger	move-move- pf
‘Ali moved his finger.’

110. respect adab gahaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_POSS

X: ERG

Y: POSS

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	aħmat’-i-b	adab	geeda
pn - erg	pn - obl - n	politeness	do. ipf
‘Ali respects Ahmat.’
Note: The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

111. be squeamish rak’wa q’aaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_EL

X: POSS

Y: EL

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	biƛ’e	rak’wa	q’aada	čoroko-b	c’araʕ-jagal
pn - n	strongly	heart	attach. ipf	dirty- n	cuttlery- el
‘Ali is very squeamish about dirty dishes.’
Note: The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

112. be content razi bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_EL

X: NOM

Y: EL

Locus: Y

ʕali	in-š:uw	da	waša-š:w-agal	razi	idja
pn	refl- m	ptcl	boy- obl - el	content	cop
‘Ali is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love roƛ’ƛ’i bexwaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_APUD

X: POSS

Y: APUD

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	marjam-i-q	roƛ’ƛ’i	b-ekku
pn - n	pn - obl - apud	love	n -fall. pf
‘Ali fell in love with Marjam.’

114. trust bežwaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	marjam-ja	bežu-da
pn	pn - dat	trust- ipf
‘Ali trusts Marjam.’

115. sympathise gurħaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	gurħeeda	in-š:u-j	da	ilwa
pn	pity. ipf	refl - obl . m - f	ptcl	mother. dat
‘Ali sympathises with his mother.’

116. envy džahda bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_COM

X: POSS

Y: COM

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	herk’a-m	džaħda	b-ik’u-da	aħmat’-i-k’el
pn - n	big- n	envy	n -be- ipf	pn - obl - com
‘Ali envies Ahmat.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

117. be angry ssime raʔaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_DAT

X: POSS

Y: DAT

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	aħmat’-ja	ssime	r-aʔ-a	idja
pn - n	pn - dat	anger	npl -come- pf	cop
‘Ali got angry with Ahmat.’

118. be surprised tamašaɬaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	tamašaɬ-e	sajʁat-ja
pn	wonder- pf	gift- dat
‘Ali was surprised at this gift.’

119. love (tea) ƛ’abaɬaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	čaj	ƛ’ab-a
pn . dat	tea	love- pf
‘Ali loves tea.’

120. enjoy rahat baʔaɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_EL

X: ERG

Y: EL

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	q’ardob	čaj-agal	raħat	b-eeda
pn - erg	hot	tea- el	rest	n -come. ipf
‘Ali enjoys hot tea.’

121. want q’oraaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	c’injo-m	mobil'nik	q’or-aa	idja
pn . dat	new- n	mobile_phone	want- pf	cop
‘Ali wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge ssime raʔaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_DAT

X: POSS

Y: DAT

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	aħmat’-ja	ssime	r-aʔ-a	idja
pn - n	pn - dat	anger	npl -come- pf	cop
‘Ali got angry with Ahmat.’

123. take offence rak’wa ssoraɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_EL

X: POSS

Y: EL

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	aħmat-jagal	rak’wa	ssor-e
pn - n	pn - el	heart	turn- pf
‘Ali took offence at Ahmat.’
Note: The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

124. upset rak’wa q’waraɬa

Valency pattern: ERG_POSS

X: ERG

Y: POSS

Locus: Y

ʕali-l	aħmat’-i-b	rak’wa	q’war-a
pn - erg	pn - obl - n	heart	bite- pf
‘Ali greatly upset Ahmat.’
Note: The possessor NP displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.

125. marvel hikmaɬaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

ʕali	ħikmaɬ-e	ha-b	šahar-ja
pn	wonder- pf	this- n	city- dat
‘Ali was impressed by this town.’

126. despise riχanɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	riχ-anwχwa	idja	aħmat’
pn . dat	be_despicable- pf . m . cv	cop	pn
‘Ali despises Ahmat.’

127. get upset pašmanɬaɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_sabale

X: NOM

Y: sabale

Locus: Y

ʕali	pašmanɬ-e	in-š:uw	da	waša	sabaɬe
pn	be_sad- pf	refl - obl . m	ptcl	boy	because_of
‘Ali got upset with his son.’

128. get irritated ssime raʔaɬa

Valency pattern: POSS_DAT

X: POSS

Y: DAT

Locus: XY

ʕali-b	jaše-ɬ-ja	ssime	r-aʔ-a	idja
pn - n	girl- obl - dat	anger	npl -come- ipf	cop
‘Ali is getting irritated with his daughter.’

129. be fond rak’wal beʔaɬa

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ʕalja	aħmat’	rak’wa-l	w-eʔ-da
pn . dat	pn	heart- erg	m -take- ipf
‘Ali is fond of Ahmat.’

130. be shy sulaƛ’a bik’waɬa

Valency pattern: NOM_EL

X: NOM

Y: EL

Locus: Y

ʕali	sula-ƛ’a	w-uk’u-da	in-š:u-b	da	w-oχχelaɬer-jagal
pn	shame- super	m -be- ipf	refl - obl . m - n	ptcl	m -size- el
‘Ali is embarrased about his height.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.