BivalTyp

Laz

Contributed by Alexander Rostovtsev-Popiel (Academia.edu profile)

A.P.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2023. The language of elicitation was German. Ahmet Aǯar (Vic’e/Vič’e, Vic’e dialect) provided the translations in his capacity of a native speaker.

How to cite

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Laz. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on October 13, 2023; last revised on December 22, 2023.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Valency classes of Laz verbs are primarily defined by their case frames. Unlike the rest of Kartvelian, Laz does not display the so-called “case-shift”, a phenomenon whereby the case marking of arguments depends on the verb’s TAM form. Anyway, Laz features a number of basic case-frame patterns characteristic of the verbs that govern a clause. Canonical transitives assign the ergative and the nominative cases to their subjects and direct objects respectively. Further verb types also exist.

Laz is not spoken monolingually, its dominant languages being primarily Turkish and, in two villages of southwest Georgia, Georgian. Laz displays a great discrepancy in terms of dialectal variation, as well as significant deviations from the Kartvelian “model” in many respects. For the purposes of the dataset below, the verb is considered transitive if and only its X-argument is marked for the ergative case, and its Y-argument, for the nominative case, as in (1). 

(1)  Käzim-i-k  ferd-išen  kitab-i   k-e-Ø-zd-u
     PN-B-ERG   shelf-ABL  book-NOM  AFF-PRV-DO3-take-S3SG.PST     
     ‘Käzim took a book from the shelf.’ (#8)

The traditional four-way distinction of verb classes in Kartvelian applies to Laz as well, including the presence of the so-called inverted verbs, see (Rostovtsev-Popiel 2023) for the disccusion of inversion on Mingrelian data. The verbs in Class II, as in (2), display nominative subjects, and the verbs in Class IV, as in (3), display dative subjects.

(2)  Käzim-i  Fatma-šen  ek'-Ø-a-skid-u
     PN-NOM   PN-ABL     PRV-IO3-VER:R-remain-S3SG.PST
     ‘Käzim fell behind Fatma.’ (#65)

(3)  Käzim-i-s  Fatma-Ø  Ø-o-nd-un-Ø
     PN-B-DAT   PN-NOM   IO3-VER:SUP-trust-SM-S3SG
     ‘Käzim trusts Fatma.’ (#114)

In bivalent and trivalent verbs, up to two arguments can be cross-referenced on the verb, by prefixal and suffixal markers; only arguments flagged by nominative, ergative and dative cases can be cross-referenced.

Case system

There are nine basic grammatical cases: nominative, ergative, dative, genitive, instrumental, adverbial, ablative, allative, and benefactive. Apart from the grammatical cases, there are around a dozen semantic cases, primarily coded by postpositional markers. Among these, sociative is found in the dataset.

References

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2023. Case-Shift on Megrelian Adverbs, in: Chumakina, Marina, Kaye, Steven, and Oliver Bond (eds.). Agreement beyond the Verb: Unusual Targets, Unexpected Domains. Oxford University Press: 264–305.

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited in their masdar (verbal nominalization) forms.

Glossing abbreviations

ABL — ablative; AFF – affirmative; ALL – allative; B – base; CAUS — causative; DAT — dative; DEM — demonstrative; DIST — distal; DO — direct object; ERG — ergative; EV — euphonic vowel; FACT — factitive; GEN — genitive; INACT – inactive; INS — instrumental; INTR — intransitive; IO — indirect object; MSD — masdar; NOM — nominative; PFV — perfectivizer; PL — plural; PN — person name; POSS – possessive; POT – potential; PROX — proximal; PRV — preverb; PST — past; PSTP — postposition; PTCP – participle; R.EXT – root extension; S — subject marker; SG — singular; SM – series marker; SOC — sociative; TR — transitive; VER:O — objective versionizer; VER:R — relative versionizer; VER:SUP — superessive versionizer.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain o-c'k'un-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s ti-Ø Ø-a-c'k'un-en-Ø
pn - b - dat head- nom io 3- ver : r -ache- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim has a headache.’

2. have (illness) o-γ-un-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s nezle-Ø Ø-u-γ-un-Ø
pn - b - dat flu- nom io 3- ver : o -have- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim has the flu.’

3. be afraid o-šk'ur-in-u

Valency pattern: DAT_ABL
X: DAT
Y: ABL
Locus: XY
Käzim-i-s ǯoγo(r)-išen Ø-a-šk'u(r)-in-en-Ø
pn - b - dat dog- abl io 3- ver : r -fear- r . ext - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw o-t'k'oč-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k kfa-Ø Ø-o-t'k'oč-u
pn - b - erg stone- nom do 3- fact -throw- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim threw a stone.’

5. have enough o-nč'-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s pa(r)a-Ø ei-Ø-o-nč'-un-Ø
pn - b - dat money- nom prv - io 3- ver : sup -have_enough- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim has enough money.’

6. resemble n-u-ngam-s

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i baba-muš-i-s n-u-ngam-s
pn - nom father- poss 3- b - dat io 3- ver : o -be_alike- s 3 sg
‘Käzim resembles his father.’

7. believe o-mtinan-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s d-Ø-a-mtinan-en-Ø
pn - nom pn - dat prv - io 3- ver : r -correct- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim believes Fatma.’

8. take o-zd-im-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k ferd-išen kitab-i k-e-Ø-zd-u
pn - b - erg shelf- abl book- nom aff - prv - do 3-take- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim took a book from the shelf.’

9. see o-ʒir-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s oxo(r)-i Ø-a-ʒi(r)-en-Ø
pn - b - dat house- nom io 3- pot -see- pot - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim sees a house.’

10. influence o-k'in-u

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
c'ana-s nos-i d-Ø-ak'ː-in-en-Ø
year- dat reason- nom prv - s 3-decrease- r . ext - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Reason decreases with age.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

11. encounter o-nag-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s Fatma-Ø Ø-nag-u
pn - b - dat pn - nom io 3-meet- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim ran into Fatma.’

12. enter o-xt'-im-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i oxo(r)-i-s ama-Ø-xt'-u
pn - nom house- b - dat prv - s 3-go- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim entered the house.’

13. win o-ǯg-in-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s g-Ø-ö-ǯg-in-u
pn - b - erg pn - dat prv - io 3- ver : sup -be_better- r . ext - s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim beat Fatma (in a game).’

14. go out o-xt'-im-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i oxo(r)-išen gama-Ø-xt'-u
pn - nom house- abl prv - s 3-go- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim went out of the house.’

15. drive o-č-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k puǯ-ep-e mend-Ø-u-č-u
pn - b - erg cow- pl - nom prv - do 3- ver : o -drive- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim drove the cows.’

16. bend o-drik'-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k č'ino-Ø go-Ø-drik'-u
pn - b - erg stick- nom prv - do 3-bend- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim bent the stick.’

17. tell o-c'-um-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s Ø-u-c'-u
pn - b - erg pn - dat io 3- ver : o -tell- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim told Fatma.’

18. hold o-krač-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s kitab-i Ø-o-krač-un-Ø
pn - b - dat book- nom io 3- ver : sup -hold- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is holding a book.’

19. catch up o-xt'-im-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s gol-Ø-u-xt'-u
pn - nom pn - dat prv - io 3- ver : o -go- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim caught up with Fatma.’

20. milk o-zd-im-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k puǯ-i-s ko-m-Ø-u-zd-u
pn - b - erg cow- b - dat aff - prv - io 3- ver : o -take- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim milked the cow.’

21. reach o-mčvir-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ALL
X: NOM
Y: ALL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i kinai-ša d-Ø-i-mčvi-u
pn - nom bank- all prv - s 3- ver : s -swim- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim reached the bank.’
Note: Lit. ‘Käzim swam/sailed to the bank.’

22. touch o-nc'-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i duvai-s n-a-nc'-u
pn - nom wall- dat io 3- ver : r -wipe- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim touched the wall.’

23. fight o-k'red-u

Valency pattern: NOM_SOC
X: NOM
Y: SOC
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Mehmet'-k'ala Ø-i-k'red-en-Ø
pn - nom pn - pstp : soc s 3- ver : s -fight- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is fighting with Mehmet'.’

24. be friends Ø-i-maneb-am-s

Valency pattern: NOM_SOC
X: NOM
Y: SOC
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Mehmet'-k'ala Ø-i-maneb-am-s
pn - nom pn - pstp : soc s 3- ver : s -be_friends- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is friends with Mehmet.’
Note: A more neutral alternative is the one where X and Y form an NP and trigger 3PL agreement on the verb.

25. think o-dušun-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Mehmet'-i Ø-i-dušun-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - nom do 3- ver : s -think- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim thinks about Mehmet'.’
Note: The verb is a borrowing from Turkish.

26. eat o-č'k'om-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k ušk'u(r)-i o-Ø-č'k'om-u
pn - b - erg apple- nom pfv - do 3-eat- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim ate an apple.’

27. fry o-daγan-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k čxom-i do-Ø-daγan-u
pn - b - erg fish- nom prv - do 3-fry- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim fried the fish.’

28. wait o-čum-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Mehmet'-i Ø-čum-e(r)-s
pn - b - erg pn - nom do 3-wait- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is waiting for Mehmet' (to come).’

29. forget o-č'k'on-d-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s hem gza-Ø g-Ø-o-č'k'on-d-u
pn - b - dat dem . dist way- nom prv - io 3- ver : sup -forget- intr - s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim forgot that road.’

30. depend o-Ɂ-u

Valency pattern: NOM_INS
X: NOM
Y: INS
Locus: Y
nos-i c'ana-ten Ø-i-[ʔ]-en-Ø
reason- nom year- ins s 3- ver : s -[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
Lit. ‘Reason grows with age.’

31. call o-ǯox-(in)-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s Ø-u-ǯox-u
pn - b - erg pn - dat io 3- ver : o -call- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim called Fatma.’

32. get to know o-čin-(ob)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø goc'os k-Ø-i-čin-u
pn - b - erg pn - nom last_year aff - do 3- ver : s -know- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim got to know Fatma last year.’

33. know o-čin-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø Ø-i-čin-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - nom do 3- ver : s -know- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim knows Fatma.’

34. play (instrument) Ø-o-č'a(r)din-am-s

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k git'ar-i Ø-o-č'a(r)din-am-s
pn - b - erg guitar- nom do 3- fact -play- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid o-kt-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s g-Ø-a-kt-en-Ø
pn - nom pn - dat prv - io 3- ver : r -avoid- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim avoids Fatma.’

36. make o-Ɂ-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k tu(γ)i-ši k'apan-i do-Ø-[ʔ]-u
pn - b - erg mouse- gen trap- nom prv - do 3-[make]- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim made a mouse trap.’

37. make fun o-tk(v-al)-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s n-Ø-o-tkv-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - dat io 3- ver : sup -say- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is making fun of Fatma.’

38. have o-ʔ-on-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s araba-Ø Ø-u-[ʔ]-on-un-Ø
pn - b - dat car- nom io 3- ver : o -have- r . ext - sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim has a car.’

39. look for o-gor-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'ola-muš-i Ø-go(r)-um-s
pn - b - erg key- poss 3- nom do 3-look_for- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is looking for his key.’

40. paint o-s-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k γobe(r)-i-s boja-Ø Ø-u-s-u
pn - b - erg fence- b - dat paint- nom io 3- ver : o -apply- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim painted the fence.’

41. bite o-č'k'om-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
ǯoγo(r)-i-k Käzim-i-s n-u-č'k'om-u
dog- b - erg pn - b - dat io 3- ver : o -eat- s 3 sg . pst
‘A dog bit Käzim.’

42. forfeit o-ndin-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k oxo(r)-i go-ndin-u
pn - b - erg house- nom prv -lose- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim lost (his) house.’

43. try to catch o-č'op-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'at'u-Ø Ø-č'op-un-s
pn - b - erg cat- nom do 3-catch- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break o-t'ax-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'et'-i me-Ø-t'ax-u
pn - b - erg stick- nom prv - do 3-break- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim broke a stick.’

45. flatter o-mck-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø Ø-o-mckv-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - nom do 3- fact -praise- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is flattering Fatma.’
Note: ‘To flatter’ is one of possible contextual interpretations of this verb.

46. love (person) o-Ɂor-op-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø Ø-o(r)-om-s
pn - b - erg pn - nom do 3-love- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim loves Fatma.’

47. wave o-val-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k mendil-i Ø-u-val-am-s
pn - b - erg handkerchief- nom io 3- ver : o -wave- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream nos-iš o-kt-am-u

Valency pattern: ERG_ABL
X: ERG
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k araba-šen=i nos-i gam-Ø-u-kt-am-s
pn - b - erg car- abl = ev reason- nom prv - io 3- ver : o -turn- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is obsessed with a car.’
Note: The verb contains vestiges of a dative argument that is not actually present.

49. wash o-čx-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Fatma-k ang-ep-e do-Ø-čx-u
pn - erg glassware- pl - nom prv - do 3-wash- s 3 sg . pst
‘Fatma washed the plates and dishes.’

50. put on o-dv-al-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k pontol-i mo-Ø-i-d-u
pn - b - erg trousers- nom prv - do 3- ver : s -put- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim put on his trousers.’

51. be called o-ʒ-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
ham še(r)-i-s k'omp'as-i g-Ø-ö-ʒ-in-Ø
dem . prox thing- b - dat compass- nom io 3- ver : sup -lie- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘This thing is called a compass.’
Note: Lit. ‘[The name] compass lies on this thing.’

52. punish o-beǯγ-u

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Käzim-i-k be(r)e-muš-i-s Ø-u-beǯγ-am-s
pn - b - erg child- poss 3- b - dat io 3- ver : o -shout_loudly- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is loudly shouting at (his) child.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

53. attack o-gab-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
tut-i Käzim-i-s ko-n-a-gab-u
bear- nom pn - b - dat aff - io 3- ver : r -attack- s 3 sg . pst
‘A bear attacked Käzim.’

54. fill (intr) o-pš-(ap)-u

Valency pattern: NOM_INS
X: NOM
Y: INS
Locus: Y
c'uk'al-i c'k'a(r)-iten o-Ø-i-pš-u
bucket- nom water- ins prv - s 3- ver : s -fill- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find o-ʒir-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'ola-muš-i ko-Ø-ʒi(r)-u
pn - b - erg key- poss 3- nom aff - do 3-see- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim found his key.’

56. be short o-k'or-om-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s a(r) li(r)a-Ø da-Ø-u-k'o(r)-om-s
pn - b - dat one l ira- nom prv - io 3- ver : o -wish- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is short of one Lira.’

57. hate o-ǯog-am-a

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s Fatma-Ø go-n-ǯog-am-s
pn - dat pn - nom prv - io 3-hate- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim hates Fatma.’

58. like o-c'on-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s po(r)ča-Ø mo-Ø-c'on-s
pn - b - dat shirt- nom prv - io 3-like- s 3 sg
‘Käzim likes the shirt.’

59. need o-k'or-om-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s para-Ø Ø-u-k'o(r)-om-s
pn - b - dat money- nom prv - io 3- ver : o -wish- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim needs money.’

60. surround go-γob-ap-a

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
noγa-s duvai-Ø go-γobe(r)-i=Ø-[r]-en-Ø
town- dat wall- nom prv -fence- nom = s 3-[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘The wall fences the town.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (participle).

61. remain o-skid-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s on li(r)a-Ø d-Ø-u-skid-u
pn - b - dat ten l ira- nom prv - io 3- ver : o -remain- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim has ten Liras left.’

62. answer ǯumap-iš me-č-am-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k muelːim-i-s ǯumap-i me-Ø-č-u
pn - b - erg teacher- b - dat answer- nom prv - io 3-give- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim answered the teacher.’

63. open o-c'k'-(im)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k küp-i mo-Ø-o-c'k'-u
pn - b - erg bottle- nom prv - do 3- fact -open- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim opened a bottle.’

64. be different gamikat-Ø o-r-in-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
po(r)ča-čkim-i skan-išen gamikat-Ø Ø-[r]-en-Ø
shirt- poss 1- nom poss 2- abl different- nom s 3-[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind o-skid-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-šen ek'-Ø-a-skid-u
pn - nom pn - abl prv - io 3- ver : r -remain- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim fell behind Fatma.’

66. plough o-zd-im-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k ekin-i e-Ø-zd-um-s
pn - b - erg field- nom prv - do 3-plough- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim ploughs the field.’

67. smell o-l-u

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
xe-čkim-i-s benzin-iš šu(r)-i Ø-a-l-em-s
hand- poss 1- b - dat gasoline- gen smell- nom io 3- ver : r -go- sm - s 3 sg
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

68. cross o-l-in-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k gza-s gol-Ø-i-l-u
pn - b - erg way- dat prv - do 3- ver : s -go- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim crossed the road.’

69. sing o-t'raγud-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Marseliza-Ø do-Ø-t'raγud-u
pn - b - erg la_ m arseillaise- nom prv - do 3-sing- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim sang “la Marseillaise”.’

70. write o-(n)č'ar-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k mektub-i do-Ø-nč'a(r)-u
pn - b - erg letter- nom prv - do 3-write- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim wrote a letter.’

71. drink o-š-(um)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k mža-Ø o-Ø-š-u
pn - b - erg milk- nom pfv - do 3-drink- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim drank the milk.’

72. melt o-ndγul-(in)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'ušum-i d-Ø-o-ndγul-in-u
pn - b - erg lead- nom prv - do 3- fact -melt- r . ext - s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim melted the lead.’

73. match o-msk-an-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
ham k'aiš-i pontol-i-s n-o-msk-un-Ø
dem . prox belt- nom trousers- b - dat io 3- fact -beautify- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘This belt goes well with the trousers.’

74. leave o-xt'-im-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i kö-išen gama-Ø-xt'-u
pn - nom village- abl prv - s 3-go- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim left the village.’

75. cover o-trag-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
xal-i-k oxo(r)-i do-Ø-trag-um-s
carpet- b - erg house- nom prv - do 3-cover- sm - s 3 sg
‘The carpet covers the living space.’

76. remember o-š-un-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s oxo(r)-i ko-Ø-š-um-s
pn - b - dat house- nom aff - io 3-remember- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim remembers the house.’

77. help o-švel-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s n-u-švel-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - dat io 3- ver : o -help- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim helps Fatma.’

78. understand (language) o-c'on-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k almanǯa-Ø oxo-Ø-c'on-am-s
pn - b - erg g erman- nom prv - do 3-memorize- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim understands German.’

79. hit (target) o-t(v-al)-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
oxo(r)-i-s šimšeγ-i g-Ø-ä-t-u
house- b - dat lightning- nom prv - io 3- ver : r -fall- s 3 sg . pst
‘The lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself o-k'vat-u

Valency pattern: ERG_INS
X: ERG
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k ǯälet-iten m-Ø-i-k'vat-u
pn - b - erg razor- ins prv - do 3- ver : s -cut- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim cut himself with a razor.’

81. get stuck o-č'ab-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
šuše-Ø masa-s ko-n-a-č'ab-u
glass- nom table- dat aff - io 3- ver : r -glue- s 3 sg . pst
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) o-ǯg-in-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s ge-Ø-i-ǯg-in-u
pn - nom pn - dat prv - s 3- ver : s -be_better- r . ext - s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim lost to Fatma.’

83. be glad o-c'on-u

Valency pattern: ERG_ABL
X: ERG
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k mektub-išen k'ai d-Ø-a-c'on-u
pn - b - erg letter- abl good prv - io 3- ver : r -like- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim got happy about the letter.’
Note: Lit. ‘Käzim liked the letter well.’

84. speak o-sinap-u

Valency pattern: ERG_SOC
X: ERG
Y: SOC
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-k'ala Ø-i-sinap-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - pstp : soc s 3- ver : s -talk- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is talking with Fatma.’

85. give birth o-Ɂ-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Fatma-s be(r)e-Ø Ø-a-[ʔ]-u
pn - dat child- nom io 3- ver : r -[have]- s 3 sg . pst
‘Fatma gave birth to a child.’

86. drop o-xt'-im-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s šuše-Ø n-u-l-u
pn - b - dat glass- nom io 3- ver : o -fall- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim dropped the glass.’

87. govern o-dg-im-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i fabrika-s ji-Ø-o-dg-in-Ø.
pn - nom factory- dat prv - do 3- fact -stand- r . ext - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is in charge of the factory.’

88. miss o-nč'el-u

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Käzim-i-s Fatma-Ø g-a-Ø-nč'el-u
pn - b - dat pn - nom prv - ver : sup - io 3-hug- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim wanted to hug Fatma.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

89. follow o-Ɂ-on-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s ek'o-Ø-[ʔ]-um-s
pn - nom pn - dat prv - io 3-[follow]- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim follows Fatma.’

90. dismount o-xt'-im-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i cxen-išen ge-Ø-xt'-u
pn - nom horse- abl prv - s 3-go- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim came down from the horse.’

91. listen uǯ-ap-a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k radio-Ø Ø-u-uǯ-am-s
pn - b - erg radio- nom io 3- ver : o -listen- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is listening to / hears (the) radio.’
Note: The meanings ‘listen’ and ‘hear’ are not formally distinguished.

92. obey uǯ-ap-a

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k nana-muš-i-s n-u-uǯ-am-s
pn - b - erg mother- poss 3- b - dat io 3- ver : o -listen- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim listens to his mother.’

93. hear uǯ-ap-a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k muziγ-i Ø-u-uǯ-am-s
pn - b - erg music- nom io 3- ver : o -listen- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is listening to / hears the music.’
Note: The meanings ‘listen’ and ‘hear’ are not formally distinguished.

94. mix o-nt'al-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
top(l)-i mža-s Ø-a-nt'al-u
honey- nom milk- dat io 3- ver : r -mix- s 3 sg . pst
‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’

95. look o-c'k'-ed-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k ca-s Ø-o-c'k'-en-Ø
pn - b - erg sky- dat io 3- ver : sup -watch- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is looking at the sky.’

96. take off o-c'k'-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k po(r)ča-Ø mo-Ø-i-c'k'-am-s
pn - b - erg shirt- nom prv - do 3- ver : s -put_on- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is taking his shirt off.’

97. dream (sleeping) izmoǯe-s o-ʒir-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k izmoǯe-s Fatma-Ø Ø-ʒi(r)-um-s
pn - b - erg dream- dat pn - nom do 3-see- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim sees Fatma in his dream(s).’

98. agree uǯ-ap-a

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s n-u-uǯ-u
pn - b - erg pn - dat io 3- ver : o -listen- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim agreed with Fatma.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.

99. have a quarrel ok'o-b(γ)-u

Valency pattern: NOM_SOC
X: NOM
Y: SOC
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-k'ala ok'o-Ø-b-un-Ø
pn - nom pn - pstp : soc prv - s 3-tie- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is quarreling with Fatma.’

100. cost o-r-in-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
ham šuše-Ø ar li(r)a-z Ø-[r]-en-Ø
dem . prox glass- nom one l ira- dat s 3-[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘This glass costs one Lira.’

101. shoot at o-il-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'inč-i do-Ø-il-u
pn - b - erg bird- nom do 3-hit- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim shot at the bird.’

102. pour o-bγ-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k šeke(r)-i gel-Ø-u-bγ-u
pn - b - erg sugar- nom prv - do 3- ver : o -scatter- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim poured the sugar.’

103. lose o-ndun-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s k'ola-Ø g-Ø-u-ndun-u
pn - b - dat key- nom prv - io 3- ver : o -lose- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim lost the key(s).’

104. sink o-nt'on-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
dišk'a-Ø c'k'a(r)-i-s do-Ø-i-nt'on-u
log- nom water- b - dat prv - s 3- ver : s -drown- s 3 sg . pst
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill o-γur-(in)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø d-Ø-o-γu(r)-in-u
pn - b - erg pn - nom prv - do 3- caus -die- caus - s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim killed Fatma.’

106. hit o-il-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø do-Ø-il-u
pn - b - erg pn - nom prv - do 3-hit- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim hit Fatma.’

107. kiss o-xel-u

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-k Fatma-s g-Ø-a-xel-u
pn - b - erg pn - dat prv - io 3- ver : r -kiss- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim kissed Fatma.’

108. read o-k'itx-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k msk'va kitab-i d-Ø-i-k'itx-u
pn - b - erg beautiful book- nom prv - do 3- ver : s -read- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim read a beautiful book.’

109. move (bodypart) o-nk'an-(ap)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k k'it'-i d-Ø-o-nk'an-u
pn - b - erg finger- nom prv - do 3- fact -move- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim moved (his) finger.’

110. respect uǯ-ap-a

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s n-u-uǯ-am-s
pn - nom pn - dat io 3- ver : o -listen- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim respects Fatma.’

111. be squeamish gur-iš o-l-(em)-u

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Käzim-i-s šave ang-i gu(r)-i Ø-a-l-em-s
pn - b - dat dirty glassware- nom heart- nom io - ver : sup -go- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is angry about dirty plates & dishes.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

112. be content memnun-i o-r-in-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i be(r)e-muš-išen memnun-i Ø-[r]-en-Ø
pn - nom child- poss 3- abl satisfied- nom s 3-[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is content with his child.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The adjective is a loanword from Turkish.

113. fall in love o-Ɂor-op-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s da-Ø-o(r)-op-u
pn - nom pn - dat prv - do 3-love- msd - s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim fell in love with Fatma.’

114. trust o-nd-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s Fatma-Ø Ø-o-nd-un-Ø
pn - b - dat pn - nom io 3- ver : sup -trust- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim trusts Fatma.’

115. sympathise gur-iš o-nč'-el-u

Valency pattern: DAT_ABL
X: DAT
Y: ABL
Locus: XY
Käzim-i-s nana-muš-išen gu(r)-i d-Ø-a-nč'-en-Ø
pn - b - dat mother- poss 3- abl heart- nom prv - io 3- ver : sup -worry- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim sympathizes with his mother.’

116. envy tol-i o-skid-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-s tol-i do-Ø-skid-un-Ø
pn - nom pn - dat eye- nom prv - s 3-remain- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim envies Fatma.’
Note: This structure is confirmed to be correct, although it looks unusual. Unmarked external possessor?

117. be angry sinij-i o-r-in-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-šen sinij-i Ø-[r]-en-Ø
pn - nom pn - abl angry- nom s 3-[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is angry with Fatma.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The adjective is a loanword from Turkish.

118. be surprised o-šaš-u

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT
X: NOM
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Käzim-i xedie-s go-Ø-i-šaš-u
pn - nom gift- dat prv - do 3- ver : s -surprise- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim was surprised at the gift.’

119. love (tea) k'ai o-c'on-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s čai-Ø k'ai d-Ø-a-c'on-en-Ø
pn - b - dat tea- nom good prv - io 3- ver : sup -like- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim likes tea greatly.’

120. enjoy o-š-(um)-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k čai-Ø me-Ø-o-šv-am-s
pn - b - erg tea- nom prv - do 3- ver : sup -drink- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim is drinking tea with pleasure.’

121. want o-gor-u

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k aγne t'elefon-i Ø-go(r)-um-s
pn - b - erg new phone- nom do 3-look_for- sm - s 3 sg
‘Käzim wants a new phone.’

122. have a grudge gur-i mu-xt'-in-er-i o-r-in-u

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i Fatma-šen gu(r)-i mu-xt'-in-e(r)-i Ø-[r]-en-Ø
pn - nom pn - abl heart- b prv -go- r . ext - ptcp - nom s 3-[be]- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is angry with Fatma.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (participle).

123. take offence o-c'k'un-u

Valency pattern: DAT_ABL
X: DAT
Y: ABL
Locus: XY
Käzim-i-s Fatma-šen Ø-a-c'k'un-u
pn - nom pn - abl io 3- ver : r -pain- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim took offence at Fatma.’
Note: .

124. upset o-č'-u

Valency pattern: ABL_DAT
X: ABL
Y: DAT
Locus: XY
Käzim-i-s Fatma-šen gu(r)-i Ø-a-č'-un-Ø
pn - b - dat pn - abl heart- nom io 3- ver : r -ache- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Fatma makes Käzim’s heart ache.’

125. marvel o-xel-u

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Käzim-i-s noγa-Ø Ø-a-xel-u
pn - b - dat town- nom io 3- ver : r -be_glad- s 3 sg . pst
‘The town pleased Käzim.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.

126. despise go-nǯog-ap-a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
Käzim-i-k Fatma-Ø go-Ø-nǯog-am-s
pn - b - erg pn - nom prv - do 3-hate- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim despises Fatma.’

127. get upset gur-iš o-kt-ap-a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABL
X: DAT
Y: ABL
Locus: XY
Käzim-i-s be(r)e-muš-išen gu(r)-i g-Ø-ä-kt-u
pn - b - dat child- poss 3- abl heart- nom prv - io 3- ver : r -turn- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim got upset because of his child.’

128. get irritated gur-iš o-kt-ap-a

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i bozo-muš-išen gu(r)-i m-Ø-a-kt-u
pn - nom girl- poss 3- abl heart- nom prv - s 3- ver : r -turn- s 3 sg . pst
‘Käzim is getting upset because of his daughter.’
Note: This structure is confirmed to be correct, although it looks unusual. Unmarked external possessor?

129. be fond o-c'on-u

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
Käzim-i-s Fatma-Ø dido mo-Ø-c'on-s
pn - b - dat pn - nom much prv - io 3-like- s 3 sg
‘Käzim likes Fatma a lot.’

130. be shy o-onǯγor-u

Valency pattern: DAT_ABL
X: NOM
Y: ABL
Locus: Y
Käzim-i-s bo(r)-i-muš-išen Ø-o-onǯγor-en-Ø
pn - b - dat height- b - poss 3- abl io 3- ver : sup -be_ashamed- sm - s 3 sg . inact
‘Käzim is shy about his height.’