Maltese

Y.A.'s photo

The data were provided by Sandra Abela (Bremen) in 2025. Additional information was provided by Valerie Olsson (Stockholm). The English version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Aquilina, Yana. 2025. Bivalent patterns in Maltese. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on May 27, 2025; last revised on May 27, 2025.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Coordinates: 35.89, 14.45.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Afro-Asiatic, genus: Semitic.
Macro-area: Europe.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Ġwanni	għandu	uġigħ	ta	ras
pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	pain	of	head
‘Ġwanni has a headache.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

2. have (illness)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għandu	l-influenza
pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	def -flu
‘Ġwanni has the flu.’

3. be afraid

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jibża'	mill-kelb
pn	be.afraid. ipf . m .3 sg	from. def -dog
‘Ġwanni is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	tafa’	ġebla
pn	throw. pf . m .3 sg	stone
‘Ġwanni threw a stone.’

5. have enough

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

issa	Ġwanni	għandu	biżżejjed	flus
now	pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	enough	money
‘Now Ġwanni has enough money.’
Note: Not included in the database because the intended meaning is expressed by a structurally discontinuous combination (predicate + adnominal modifier).

6. resemble

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jixbah	lil	Mark
pn	resemble. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni resembles Mark.’
Note: The use of the preposition “lil” is obligatory with this verb. This is not an optional direct object marker.

7. believe

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jemmen	lil	Mark
pn	believe. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni believes Mark.’
Note: The use of the preposition “lil” is obligatory with this verb. This is not an optional direct object marker.

8. take

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ħa	ktieb	minn	fuq	l-ixkaffa
pn	take. pf . m .3 sg	book	from	on	def -shelf
‘Ġwanni took a book from the shelf.’

9. see

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jara	dar
pn	see. pf . m .3 sg	house
‘Ġwanni sees a house.’

10. influence

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

l-eta’	taffettwa	l-memorja
def -age	influence. ipf . f .3 sg	def -memory
‘Age influences memory.’

11. encounter

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	ltaqa’	ma’	Mark
pn	meet. pf . m .3 sg	with1	pn
‘Ġwanni encountered Mark.’

12. enter

Valency pattern: SBJ_fi

X: SBJ

Y: fi

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	daħal	fid-dar
pn	enter. pf . m .3 sg	in. def -house
‘Ġwanni entered the house.’

13. win

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	rebaħ	lil	Mark
pn	win. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni beat Mark.’
Note: The use of the preposition “lil” is obligatory with this verb in this meaning. This is not an optional direct object marker.

14. go out

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	ħareġ	mid-dar
pn	go_out. pf . m .3 sg	from. def -house
‘Ġwanni went out of the house.’

15. drive

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ħa	l-baqra
pn	take. pf . m .3 sg	def -cow
‘Ġwanni is driving the cow.’

16. bend

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għawweġ	il-fergħa
pn	bend. pf . m .3 sg	def -branch
‘Ġwanni bent the branch.’

17. tell

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	qal	lil	Mark: …
pn	tell. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni told Mark: :..’

18. hold

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għandu	ktieb	f’	idejn
pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	book. sg	in	hand. du
‘Ġwanni is holding a book in his hands.’

19. catch up

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	laħaq	lil	Mark
pn	reach. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni caught up with Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

20. milk

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ħaleb	il-baqra
pn	milk. pf . m .3 sg	def -cow
‘Ġwanni milked the cow.’

21. reach

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	laħaq	xatt	ix-xmara
pn	reach. pf . m .3 sg	shore	def -river
‘Ġwanni reached the bank.’

22. touch

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	mess	il-ħajt
pn	touch. pf . m .3 sg	def -wall
‘Ġwanni touched the wall.’

23. fight

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jiġġieled	ma	Mark
pn	fight. ipf . m .3 sg	with	pn
‘Ġwanni is fighting with Mark.’

24. be friends

Valency pattern: SBJ_ta

X: SBJ

Y: ta

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	ħabib	issa	ta	Mark
pn	friend. sg	now	of	pn
‘Ġwanni is now friends with Mark.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

25. think

Valency pattern: SBJ_fuq

X: SBJ

Y: fuq

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	qed	jaħseb	fuq	Mark
pn	prog	think. ipf . m .3 sg	on	pn
‘Ġwanni is thinking about Mark.’

26. eat

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	kiel	tuffieħa
pn	eat. pf . m .3 sg	apple
‘Ġwanni ate an apple.’

27. fry

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	qela	l-ħut
pn	fry. pf . m .3 sg	def -fish
‘Ġwanni fried the fish.’

28. wait

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jistenna	lil	Mark
pn	wait. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni is waiting for Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

29. forget

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	nesa	t-triq	l-oħra
pn	forget. pf . m .3 sg	def -road	def -other
‘Ġwanni forgot the other road.’

30. depend

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

il-memorja	tiddependi	mill-eta'
def -memory	depend. ipf . f .3 sg	from. def -age
‘Memory depends on age.’

31. call

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	għajjat	lil	Mark
pn	call. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni called Mark.’

32. get to know

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	sar	jaf	lil	Mark
pn	come. pf . m .3 sg	know. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni got to know Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

33. know

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jaf	lil	Mark
pn	know. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni knows Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

34. play (instrument)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jdoqq	il-kitarra
pn	play. ipf . m .3 sg	def -guitar
‘Ġwanni is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jevita	lil	Mark
pn	avoid. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni avoids Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

36. make

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għamel	nassa	tal-ġrieden
pn	make. pf . m .3 sg	trap	of. def -mouse. pl
‘Ġwanni made a mousetrap.’

37. make fun

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jinki	lil	Mark
pn	tease. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni is making fun of Mark.’

38. have

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għandu	karozza
pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	car
‘Ġwanni has a car.’

39. look for

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jfittex	iċ-ċwievet
pn	search. ipf . m .3 sg	def -keys
‘Ġwanni is looking for his keys.’

40. paint

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	żeba’	ċ-ċint
pn	paint. pf . m .3 sg	def -fence
‘Ġwanni painted the fence.’

41. bite

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

il-kelb	gidem	lil	Ġwann
def -dog	bite. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘A dog bit Ġwanni.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

42. forfeit

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwann	tilef	id-dar
pn	lose. pf . m .3 sg	def -house
‘Ġwann lost his house.’

43. try to catch

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwann	jipprova	jaqbad	‘il-qattus
pn	try. ipf . m .3 sg	catch. ipf . m .3 sg	def -cat
‘Ġwann is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwann	qasam	qasba
pn	break. pf . m .3 sg	stick
‘Ġwann broke a stick.’

45. flatter

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jikkumplimenta	lil	Mary
pn	flatter. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni is flattering Mary.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

46. love (person)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jħobb	lil	Mary
pn	love. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni loves Mary.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

47. wave

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jxejjer	il-maktur
pn	wave. ipf . m .3 sg	def -handkerchief
‘Ġwanni is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	joħlom	b’	karozza	ġdida
pn	dream. ipf . m .3 sg	with2	car	new
‘Ġwanni is dreaming of a new car.’

49. wash

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ħasel	it-tazza
pn	wash. pf . m .3 sg	def -cup
‘Ġwanni washed the cup.’

50. put on

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	libes	il-qalziet
pn	wear. pf . m .3 sg	def -trousers
‘Ġwanni put on his trousers.’

51. be called

Valency pattern: DO_BARE

X: DO

Y: BARE

Locus: X

din	l-għodda	jsejħul-ha	kumpass
prox	def -tool	call. ipf .3 pl - obj . f .3 sg	compass
‘This tool is called compass.’

52. punish

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jkkastiga	l-ibnu
pn	punish. pf . m .3 sg	def -son. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni punished his son.’

53. attack

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

ors	attakka	sajjed
bear	attack. pf . m .3 sg	fisherman
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr)

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

il-barmil	imtela	bl-ilma
def -bucket	be_filled. pf . m .3 sg	with2-water
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	sab	iċ-ċwievet	tiegħu
pn	find. pf . m .3 sg	def -keys	poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni found his keys.’

56. be short

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jonqsu	ewro
pn	lack. ipf . m .3 sg	euro
‘Ġwanni lacks one euro.’

57. hate

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jobgħod	lil	Mark
pn	hate. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni hates Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

58. like

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ

X: DO

Y: SBJ

Locus: X

lil	Ġwanni	togħġbu	din	il-qmis
to	pn	please. ipf . f .3 sg	dem . prox . f	def -shirt
‘Ġwanni likes this shirt.’

59. need

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għandu	bżonn	il-flus
pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	need	def -money
‘Ġwanni needs money.’

60. surround

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

is-swar	idawru	l-belt
def -walls	encircle. ipf . m .3 sg	def -city
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain

Valency pattern: BARE&DO_SBJ

X: BARE&DO

Y: SBJ

Locus: X

Ġwanni	fadal-lu	10	ewro
pn	remain. pf . m .3 sg - obj . m .3 sg	num	euro
‘Ġwanni has 10 euros left.’

62. answer

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	wieġeb	lill-għalliem
pn	answer. pf . m .3 sg	to. def -teacher
‘Ġwanni answered the teacher.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

63. open

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	fetaħ	bott
pn	open. pf . m .3 sg	can
‘Ġwanni opened a can.’

64. be different

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

le,	l-flokk	tiegħi	differenti	minn	tiegħek
no	def -shirt	poss .1 sg	different	from	poss .2 sg
‘No, my shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Ġwanni	waqa’	lura	Mark
pn	fall. pf . m .3 sg	back	pn
‘Ġwanni fell behind Mark.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y cannot be overtly expressed.

66. plough

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jaħrat	l-għalqa
pn	plough. ipf . m .3 sg	def -field
‘Ġwanni is ploughing the field.’

67. smell

Valency pattern: SBJ_ta

X: SBJ

Y: ta

Locus: Y

idejja	jriħu	ta	gasoline
hands. poss .1 sg	smell. ipf .3 pl	of	gasoline
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’

68. cross

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	qasam	it-triq
pn	cross. pf . m .3 sg	def -road
‘Ġwanni crossed the road.’

69. sing

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	kanta	kanzunetta	sabiħa
pn	sing. pf . m .3 sg	song	beautiful. f
‘Ġwanni sang a beautiful song.’

70. write

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	kiteb	ittra
pn	write. pf . m .3 sg	letter
‘Ġwanni wrote a letter.’

71. drink

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	xorob	il-ħalib
pn	drink. pf . m .3 sg	def -milk
‘Ġwanni drank the milk.’

72. melt

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ħall	biċċa	ċomb
pn	melt. pf . m .3 sg	piece	lead
‘Ġwanni melted a piece of lead.’

73. match

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

daċ-ċinturin	jaqbel	mal-libsa
prox . def -belt	match. ipf . m .3 sg	with. def -dress
‘This belt matches my dress.’

74. leave

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ħalla	l-belt	twelidu
pn	leave. pf . m .3 sg	def -city	birth. poss
‘Ġwanni left his native city.’

75. cover

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

it-tapit	jiksi	l-art
def -carpet	cover. ipf . m 3 sg	def -floor
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jiftakar	sew	id-dar
pn	remember. ipf . m 3 sg	well	def -house
‘Ġwanni remembers the house well.’

77. help

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	għen	lil	Mark
pn	help. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni helped Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

78. understand (language)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jifhem	il-Franċiż
pn	understand. ipf . m .3 sg	def - f rench
‘Ġwanni understands French.’

79. hit (target)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Is-sajjetti	laqtu	d-dar
def -lightning. pl	hit. pf .3 pl	def -house
‘Lightning hit the house.’

80. cut oneself

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	qata’	lilu	nifsu	b’	xafra
pn	cut. pf . m .3 sg	obj . m .3 sg	refl	with2	knife
‘Ġwanni cut himself with a razor.’

81. get stuck

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

it-tazza	weħlet	mal-mejda
def -glass	get.stuck. pf . f .3 sg	with. def -table
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game)

Valency pattern: SBJ_kontra

X: SBJ

Y: kontra

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	tilef	kontra	Mark
pn	lose. pf . m .3 sg	against	pn
‘Ġwanni lost to Mark.’

83. be glad

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	feraħ	bl-ittra
pn	be.happy. pf . m .3 sg	with. def -letter
‘Ġwanni was glad about the letter.’

84. speak

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	qed	ikellem	lil	Mark
pn	prog	speak. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni is speaking with Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system. In a context like “speak to a wall” no preposition was used.

85. give birth

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Maria	weldet	iben
pn	give.birth. pf . f .3 sg	son
‘Maria gave birth to a son.’
Note: This is an example of the DOM system. With a proper name as the Y argument, preposition “lil” will be used.

86. drop

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	waqqa’	t-tazza
pn	drop. pf . m .3 sg	def -glass
‘Ġwanni dropped the glass.’

87. govern

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jigverna	l-belt tagħna
pn	govern. ipf . m .3 sg	def -town. poss .1 pl
‘Ġwanni governs our town.’

88. miss

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jimmissja	lil	Mark
pn	miss. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni misses Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

89. follow

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jsegwi	lil	Mark
pn	follow. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni follows Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

90. dismount

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	niżel	minn	fuq	iż-żiemel
pn	go.down. pf . m .3 sg	from	on	def -horse
‘Ġwanni got down from the horse.’

91. listen

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	qed	jisma’	r-radju
pn	prog	listen. ipf . m .3 sg	def -radio
‘Ġwanni is listening to radio.’

92. obey

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	dejjem	jobdi	minn	ommu
pn	always	obey. ipf . m .3 sg	from	mother. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni always obeys his mother.’

93. hear

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jisma’	l-mużika
pn	hear. ipf . m .3 sg	def -music
‘Ġwanni hears the music.’

94. mix

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

l-għasel	tħallat	mal-ħalib
def -honey	be.mixed. pf . m 3 sg	with. def -milk
‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’

95. look

Valency pattern: SBJ_lejn

X: SBJ

Y: lejn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	qed	iħares	lejn	is-sħab
pn	prog	look. ipf . m .3 sg	towards	def -clouds
‘Ġwanni is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	neħħa	l-qmis
pn	remove. pf . m .3 sg	def -shirt
‘Ġwanni took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping)

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	joħlom	b’	Mark
pn	dream. ipf . m .3 sg	with	pn
‘Ġwanni dreams about Mark.’

98. agree

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	qabel	ma	Mark
pn	agree. pf . m .3 sg	with	pn
‘Ġwanni agreed with Mark.’

99. have a quarrel

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	kellu	ġlieda	ma	Mark
pn	have. pf . m .3 sg	quarrel	with	pn
‘Ġwanni had a quarrel with Mark.’

100. cost

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

din	it-tazza	tiswi	ewro	wieħed
prox	def -cup	cost. ipf . f .3 sg	euro	num
‘This cup costs one euro.’

101. shoot at

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	spara	lil	għasfur
pn	shoot. pf . m .3 sg	to	bird
‘Ġwanni shot at the bird.’
Note: The use of the preposition “lil” is obligatory with this verb. This is not an optional direct object marker.

102. pour

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	tefa’	z-zokkar	fit-tazza
pn	pour. pf . m .3 sg	def -sugar	in. def -cup
‘Ġwanni poured the sugar into the cup.’

103. lose

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	tilef	iċ-ċwievet	tiegħu
pn	lose. pf . m .3 sg	def -keys	poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni lost his keys.’

104. sink

Valency pattern: SBJ_fi

X: SBJ

Y: fi

Locus: Y

iz-zokk	għereq	fl-ilma
def -log	sink. pf . m .3 sg	in. def -water
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	qatel	lil	Mark
pn	kill. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni killed Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

106. hit

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	laqat	lil	Mark
pn	hit. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni hit Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

107. kiss

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	bies	lil	Mary
pn	kiss. pf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni kissed Mary.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

108. read

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	qara	ktieb	interessanti
pn	read. pf . m .3 sg	book	interesting
‘Ġwanni read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	ċaqlaq	sebgħu
pn	move. pf . m .3 sg	finger. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni moved his finger.’

110. respect

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jirrispetta	lil	Mark
pn	respect. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni respects Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

111. be squeamish

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jitqażżeż	mill-platti	maħmuġin
pn	be.disgusted. ipf . m .3 sg	from-plates	dirty. pl
‘Ġwanni is squeamish about dirty dishes.’

112. be content

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	kuntent	b	ibnu
pn	content	with	son. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni is content with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	sar	iħobb	lil	Mary
pn	come. pf . m .3 sg	love. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni fell in love with Mary.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

114. trust

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jifdi	lil	Mary
pn	trust. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni trusts Mary.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

115. sympathise

Valency pattern: SBJ_ghal

X: SBJ

Y: ghal

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jħoss	għal	ommu
pn	feel. ipf . m .3 sg	for	mother. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni sympathises with his mother.’

116. envy

Valency pattern: SBJ_ghal

X: SBJ

Y: ghal

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jgħir	għal	Mark
pn	be.jealous. ipf . m .3 sg	for	pn
‘Ġwanni envies Mark.’

117. be angry

Valency pattern: SBJ_ghal

X: SBJ

Y: ghal

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	rrabjat	għal	Mark
pn	be.angry. ipf . m .3 sg	for	pn
‘Ġwanni is angry with Mark.’

118. be surprised

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	kien	sorpriż	bir-rigal
pn	be. pf . m .3 sg	surprised	with. def -present
‘Ġwanni was surprised at this gift.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

119. love (tea)

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jħobb	it-te
pn	love. ipf . m .3 sg	def -tea
‘Ġwanni loves tea.’

120. enjoy

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jieħu	gost	t-te	sħun
pn	take. ipf . m .3 sg	pleasure	def -tea	hot
‘Ġwanni enjoys hot tea.’

121. want

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jrid	mowbajl	ġdid
pn	want. ipf . m .3 sg	mobile.phone	new
‘Ġwanni wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge

Valency pattern: SBJ_ghal

X: SBJ

Y: ghal

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	għandu	l-geddum	għal	Mark
pn	have. ipf . m .3 sg	def -chin	for	pn
‘Ġwanni has a grudge against Mark.’

123. take offence

Valency pattern: SBJ_minn

X: SBJ

Y: minn

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	kien	offiż	minn	Mark
pn	be. pf . m .3 sg	offence	from	pn
‘Ġwanni took offence at Mark.’
Note: This is a passive construction.

124. upset

Valency pattern: SBJ_lil

X: SBJ

Y: lil

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	ta	kedda	kbira	lil	Mark
pn	give. pf . m .3 sg	worry	big. f	to	pn
‘Ġwanni greatly upset Mark.’
Note: CV. The use of the preposition “lil” is obligatory here. This is not an optional direct object marker.

125. marvel

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	kien	immeraviljat	bil-belt
pn	be. pf . m .3 sg	marveled	with. def -town
‘Ġwanni marvelled at this town.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

126. despise

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jiddisprezza	lil	Mark
pn	despise. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni despises Mark.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

127. get upset

Valency pattern: SBJ_minhabba

X: SBJ

Y: minhabba

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	ħa	kedda	minħabba	ibnu
pn	take. pf . m .3 sg	worry	because.of	son. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni got upset because of his son.’

128. get irritated

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	qed	jitnerveż	ma’	bintu
pn	prog	get.irritated. ipf . m .3 sg	with	daughter. poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni is getting irritated with his daughter.’

129. be fond

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Ġwanni	jħobb	lil	Mary
pn	love. ipf . m .3 sg	to	pn
‘Ġwanni is fond of Mary.’
Note: The preposition “lil” is not obligatory with this verb. This is an example of the DOM system.

130. be shy

Valency pattern: SBJ_b

X: SBJ

Y: b

Locus: Y

Ġwanni	jħossu	mbarazzat	bit-tul	tiegħu
pn	feel. ipf . m .3 sg	embarassed	with. def -height	poss . m .3 sg
‘Ġwanni is embarrassed about his height.’