Shughni 
Contributed by Daria Chistiakova  (Academia.edu profile ) and Daria Ryzhova  
(Academia.edu profile )
How to cite 
  Chistiakova, Daria & Daria Ryzhova. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Shughni. 
  In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. 
  (Data first published on January 1, 2023; 
  last revised on September 24, 2025.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info , 
  Accessed on 
 
Basic info 
Coordinates: 37.5, 71.79 . 
Genealogy (as given in WALS ). Family: Indo-European, genus: Iranian. 
Macro-area: North and Central Asia. 
 
Grammar notes 
Basic clause structure and the transitive construction 
Shughni shows nominative-accusative alignment with elements of split-intransitivity, overtly expressed in a limited number of contexts. In the present tense, the verb obligatorily agrees with the subject (S or A argument) via person-number agreement suffixes. In the past tenses, the verb can agree with the subject via second-position person-number agreement clitics. Some intransitive verbs in the past tenses also agree with the subject in gender through vowel alternation. There is no flagging on nouns in core argument positions (S, A, or O). Non-core arguments are flagged  with prepositions and/or postpositions. The standard word order is SOV.
In the basic transitive construction, both core arguments, if expressed by nouns, remain unflagged. However, personal pronouns and demonstratives differentiate between the nominative (direct) case for the A-argument and oblique case, for the O-argument, annotated as "OBL" in the valency class tags below. Apart from this, in the past tense, A-arguments are obligatorily indexed by the subject clitic =i , as in(1).
(1)  Šamil=i  Azim  zīd
     PN=3SG   PN    kill.PST
     ‘Shamil killed Azim.’
While all intransitive subjects pattern with transitive subjects in terms of flagging, there are two types of intransitive subjects differentiated in terms of indexing. Some of them (annotated as NOM.CL in the valency class tags below) do receive the same =i  clitic, as in (2), while others (annotated as NOM.NO.CL in the valency class tags) do not, as in (3).
(2) Ahmed=i  as  Karamšo  yod
    PN=3SG   EL  PN       bring.PST
    ‘Ahmed beat Karamsho.’
(3) Azim  as  čīd    nax̌tūy-d
    PN    EL  house  go.out-PST
    ‘Azim went out of the house.’
Thus, Shughni displays the verb-determined variety of split intransitivity. This is relevant for the classification of valency patterns. For example, the "NOM.CLEL" and "NOM.NO.CL EL" are classified as distinct valency patterns below. To correctly identify the verb's valency pattern it was necessary to analyze its behavior in the past tense, sometimes beyond the questionnaire sentence translation as provided below.
Case system 
There is no morphological case on nouns. Personal pronouns and demonstratives have three case-marked forms: direct (nominative), oblique and dative. Demonstratives have deictic, anaphoric and adnominal uses, the latter typically with definite nouns or noun phrases. In adnominal usage, direct or oblique case of the demonstrative reflects the syntactic role of the modified noun (analytical case [Kerimova & Rastorgueva 1975: 198; Arkadiev 2006: 6]). In example (4) wi xêx̌čak  [D3.M.SG OBL branch] ‘the branch’ is a direct object in the oblique case, which is evident from the oblique form of the demonstrative.
(4) Ahmed=i  wi           xêx̌čak  xām   δod
    PN=3SG   D3.M.SG.OBL  branch  bend  give.PST
    ‘Ahmed bent the branch.’
Verb lemmas 
Verbs are given in the infinitive form. Complex verbs are shown as phrases consisting of a non-verbal component and a verb in the infinitive form. Non-verbal predicates are shown as phrases consisting of a non-verbal component and a verb vidow  ‘to be’ in the infinitive form.
Glossing abbreviations 
ADD – additive; ADV – adverbializer; AUX – auxiliary verb; D – demonstrative; DAT – dative; DIM – diminutive; EL – elative; EM – emphasizer; EQ – equative; F – feminine; IMPER – imperative; INF – infinitive; INS – instrumental; LOC – locative; M – masculine; NEG – negative; OBL – oblique; P.LOC – possessive locative; PF – perfect; PL – pluralis; PN –  personal name; PREP.DOWN - preposition of downward direction; PREP.UP - preposition of upward direction; PST – past; REFL – reflexive; SG – singular; SUB – sublative; SUBST – substantivizer; SUP – superessive.
Data 
    
        
            Subset examples by valency pattern 
            
                Any 
                NA 
                DAT_EL 
                DAT_NOM.CL 
                DAT_NOM.NO.CL 
                LOC_NOM.CL 
                LOC_NOM.NO.CL 
                NOM.CL_DAT 
                NOM.CL_EL 
                NOM.CL_EQ 
                NOM.CL_INS 
                NOM.CL_PREP.UP-LOC 
                NOM.CL_SUP 
                NOM.NO.CL_beOBL 
                NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                NOM.NO.CL_EL-SUP 
                NOM.NO.CL_EQ 
                NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                NOM.NO.CL_NOM(NO.AGR) 
                NOM.NO.CL_OBLdamti 
                NOM.NO.CL_OBLgarginuxa 
                NOM.NO.CL_PREP.DOWN 
                NOM.NO.CL_PREP.UP 
                NOM.NO.CL_SUP 
                P.LOC_NOM.NO.CL 
                TR 
             
        
        
            Subset examples by locus 
            
                Any 
                * 
                TR 
                X 
                XY 
                Y 
             
        
     
    
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            LOC_NOM.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: LOC 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed-and 
                        wi 
                        kāl 
                        dārδ 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            head 
                         
                        
                            pain 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed has a headache.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            LOC_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: LOC 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola-yand 
                        rāk 
                        kasali 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            cancer 
                         
                        
                            illness 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola has cancer.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        as 
                        kūd 
                        x̌oǰ 
                        δêr-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            dog 
                         
                        
                            fear 
                         
                        
                            aux 
                            -3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed is afraid of the dog.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        yakum 
                        žīr 
                        šič 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            first 
                         
                        
                            stone 
                         
                        
                            throw 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed threw a stone first.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed-and 
                        wi 
                        pūl 
                        wi-rd 
                        firop-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            money 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            reach-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed has enough money.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: The genuine argument is the pronoun in the LAT form. External possessor marked by LOC is optional. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EQ 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EQ 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        tar 
                        xu 
                        bob 
                        mūnand 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            grandfather 
                         
                        
                            similar 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed resembles his grandfather.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_DAT 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        Azim-ard 
                        bowari 
                        δī-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            trust 
                         
                        
                            give-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed believes Azim.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        kitob 
                        as 
                        tažerka-ti 
                        zox̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            book 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            shelf- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            take- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim took a book from the shelf.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        čīd 
                        wīn-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            house 
                         
                        
                            see-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim sees a house.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        sol 
                        wux̌-ti 
                        tāsīr 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            year 
                         
                        
                            memory- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            influence 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Age influences memory.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        Azim 
                        půnd-ti 
                        wīn-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            road- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            see- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed encountered Azim on the road.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EQ 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EQ 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        tar 
                        čīd 
                        ded 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            house 
                         
                        
                            enter. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed entered the house.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        as 
                        Karamšo 
                        yod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            bring. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed beat Karamsho.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        as 
                        čīd 
                        nax̌tūy-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            house 
                         
                        
                            go.out- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim went out of the house.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        wam 
                        žow 
                        ay 
                        čūd 
                        wox̌ 
                        xīd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            cow 
                         
                        
                            expulsion 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                        
                            grass 
                         
                        
                            eat. 
                            inf 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is driving the cow to graze.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        wi 
                        xêx̌čak 
                        xām 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            branch 
                         
                        
                            bend 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed bent the branch.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_DAT 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        Lola-yard 
                        lůd: 
                        te 
                        tar 
                        čīd=aθ 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            say. 
                            pst 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            imper 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            house= 
                            adv 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim told Lola: “Go home”.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        mu 
                        kitob 
                        anǰūv-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            1 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            book 
                         
                        
                            hold- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed was holding my book.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        Karamšo 
                        daryov 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            capture 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed caught up with Karamsho.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Saida=yi 
                        žow 
                        δūy-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            cow 
                         
                        
                            milk- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Saida milked the cow.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EQ 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EQ 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        lodka=qati 
                        tar 
                        qoq-i 
                        firīp-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            boat= 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            dry- 
                            subst 
                         
                        
                            reach- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim reached the bank in a boat.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_PREP.UP-LOC 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: PREP.UP-LOC 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        pi 
                        burǰ-and 
                        xu 
                        δod 
                        xu 
                        ɣažd 
                        sut 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            prep 
                            . 
                            up 
                         
                        
                            wall- 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                        
                            add 
                         
                        
                            dirty 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim touched the wall and got dirty.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Naǰiba 
                        Safina=qati 
                        δêd 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            quarrel 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Najiba is fighting with Safina.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=at 
                        Azim=en 
                        ox̌no-yen 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            add 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            friend- 
                            pl 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed is friends with Azim.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        Lola 
                        fikri 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            thought 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is thinking about Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        mūn 
                        xūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            apple 
                         
                        
                            eat. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed ate an apple.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        gūx̌t 
                        pêx-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            meat 
                         
                        
                            cook- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim cooked the meat.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_PREP.UP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: PREP.UP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        pi 
                        Lola 
                        nūs-č 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            prep 
                            . 
                            up 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            sit. 
                            m 
                            - 
                            pf 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is waiting for Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        as 
                        wi 
                        yiga 
                        půnd 
                        rinūx̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            another 
                         
                        
                            road 
                         
                        
                            forget- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim forgot about the other road.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        pamyat 
                        as 
                        vozrast 
                        wobastā 
                     
                    
                        
                            memory 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            age 
                         
                        
                            dependent 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Memory depends on age.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        xu 
                        nān 
                        qīw-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            mother 
                         
                        
                            call- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim called his mother.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        Saida=qati 
                        yi 
                        sol 
                        tar 
                        piro 
                        balad 
                        sut 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            one 
                         
                        
                            year 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            ahead 
                         
                        
                            familiar 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed got to know Saida a year ago.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        Saida 
                        fām-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            know-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed knows Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        gitar-ti 
                        niwoz-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            guitar- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            play-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed is playing the guitar.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        as 
                        Saida 
                        zibīn-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            jump-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed avoids Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        pūrg-anǰavīǰ=ak 
                        xůbaθ 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            mousetrap= 
                            dim 
                         
                        
                            himself 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim made a mousetrap himself.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        as 
                        Saida 
                        qīn 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            difficult 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed is making fun of Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            LOC_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: LOC 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed-and 
                        mošin 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            car 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed has a car.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        xu 
                        wix̌īӡ-en 
                        x̌ikīr-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            key- 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            look.for-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is looking for his keys.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        xu 
                        divi 
                        rang 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            door 
                         
                        
                            color 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim painted the door.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        yu 
                        kūd=i 
                        wam 
                        vorǰ 
                        piren-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            dog=3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            horse 
                         
                        
                            bite- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘The dog bit the horse.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_beOBL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: beOBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        be-malā 
                        red 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            without-dwelling 
                         
                        
                            remain. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed lost his house.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        pīš 
                        anǰīv-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            cat 
                         
                        
                            catch-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed is trying to catch the cat.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        wi 
                        sêx 
                        virux̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            stick 
                         
                        
                            break- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim broke a stick.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        Saida 
                        žīwǰ 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            love 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed loves Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        lemol-ak=qati 
                        δust 
                        weδ-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            headscarf- 
                            dim 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            hand 
                         
                        
                            put- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is waving a headscarf.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        xu 
                        čīni 
                        zino-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            cup 
                         
                        
                            wash- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed washed the cup.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        xu 
                        laq-en 
                        pinūy-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            pants- 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            put.on- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil put on his trousers.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        ik-di 
                        kočor 
                        nům 
                        kumpas 
                     
                    
                        
                            em 
                            - 
                            d 
                            2. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            thing 
                         
                        
                            name 
                         
                        
                            compass 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘This object is called a compass.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        xu 
                        puc 
                        kud 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            son 
                         
                        
                            dog 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim punished his son.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        xirs=i 
                        wi 
                        ribak-ti 
                        firīp-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            bear=3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            fisherman- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            reach- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        čalak 
                        x̌ac=qati 
                        pur 
                        sat 
                     
                    
                        
                            pail 
                         
                        
                            water= 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            much 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘The bucket filled with water.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        čilā 
                        virū-d 
                        půnd=ti 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            ring 
                         
                        
                            find- 
                            pst 
                         
                        
                            road= 
                            sup 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim found a ring on the road.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil-ard 
                        aray 
                        somoni=ga 
                        na-firop-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            three 
                         
                        
                            somoni=more 
                         
                        
                            neg 
                            -reach-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil is three somoni short.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil-ard 
                        Azim 
                        dis=ga 
                        bad 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            such=more 
                         
                        
                            bad 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil hates Azim.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim-ard 
                        ik-am 
                        kurtā 
                        xuš 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            em 
                            - 
                            d 
                            1. 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            shirt 
                         
                        
                            pleasant 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim likes this shirt.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim-ard 
                        pūl 
                        darkor 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            money 
                         
                        
                            needed 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim needs money.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_OBLgarginuxa 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBLgarginuxa 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        burǰ-en 
                        x̌ār 
                        garginūx̌ā 
                     
                    
                        
                            wall- 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            city 
                         
                        
                            around 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Walls surround the city.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            P.LOC_NOM.NO.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: P.LOC 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim-ǰā 
                        δis 
                        som=ga 
                        red 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            p 
                            . 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            ten 
                         
                        
                            somoni=more 
                         
                        
                            remain. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim has ten somoni left.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_DAT 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        molim-ard 
                        ǰawob 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            teacher- 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            answer 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim answered the teacher.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        banka 
                        yet 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            jar 
                         
                        
                            open 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim opened a can.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        mu 
                        kurtā 
                        as 
                        tu 
                        kurtā 
                        farq 
                     
                    
                        
                            1 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            shirt 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            2 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            shirt 
                         
                        
                            difference 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘My shirt is different from yours.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        as 
                        Lola 
                        zibo 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            behind 
                         
                        
                            fall. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim fell behind Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        agorod 
                        čůn-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            garden 
                         
                        
                            dig-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is digging the garden.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        wi 
                        δust-en 
                        benzin 
                        bůy 
                        δiy-en 
                     
                    
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            hand- 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            oil 
                         
                        
                            smell 
                         
                        
                            fall-3 
                            pl 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘My hands smell of gasoline.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        as 
                        půnd 
                        naɣ̌ǰī-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            road 
                         
                        
                            pass- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim crossed the road.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola=yi 
                        xušrūy 
                        soz 
                        lůd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            beautiful 
                         
                        
                            song 
                         
                        
                            sing. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola sang a beautiful song.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola=yi 
                        xāt 
                        niviš-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            letter 
                         
                        
                            write- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola wrote a letter.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola=yi 
                        x̌ūvd 
                        birox̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            milk 
                         
                        
                            drink- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola drank the milk.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        tillo 
                        kandi 
                        ob 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            gold 
                         
                        
                            piece 
                         
                        
                            water 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim melted a piece of gold.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        ik-am 
                        tasma 
                        mu 
                        kurtā=qati 
                        ǰūr 
                        yoδ-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            em 
                            - 
                            d 
                            1. 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            belt 
                         
                        
                            1 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            dress= 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            pair 
                         
                        
                            come-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘This belt goes well with my dress.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        xu 
                        x̌ār 
                        tark 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            city 
                         
                        
                            leave 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim left his native city.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        pilês 
                        fuk 
                        pol 
                        čust 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            carpet 
                         
                        
                            all 
                         
                        
                            floor 
                         
                        
                            closed 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Saida 
                        di 
                        čīd 
                        xip=aθ 
                        fam-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            2. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            house 
                         
                        
                            good= 
                            adv 
                         
                        
                            know-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Saida remembers the house well.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_DAT 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        Lola-yard 
                        yordam 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            help 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil helped Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Saida 
                        xuɣ̌nůni 
                        fam-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            s 
                            hughni 
                         
                        
                            know-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Saida understands Shughni.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        otex̌ak=ta 
                        čīd 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            lightning= 
                            em 
                         
                        
                            house 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lightning struck the house.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        xu 
                        têɣ-ak=qati 
                        zaxmi 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            razor- 
                            dim 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            injured 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim cut himself with a razor.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        stakan 
                        stol-ti 
                        xax̌ 
                        sut 
                     
                    
                        
                            glass 
                         
                        
                            table- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            hard 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘The glass got stuck to the table.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        as 
                        Azima 
                        na-yo-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            neg 
                            -win- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil lost to Azim.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EQ 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EQ 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        tar 
                        wi 
                        xāt 
                        xuš 
                        sut 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            letter 
                         
                        
                            happy 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim was glad about the letter.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        Lola=qati 
                        naqli 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            conversation 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is speaking with Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola=yi 
                        puc 
                        vūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            son 
                         
                        
                            bring. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola gave birth to a son.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        čaška 
                        pitêw-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            cup 
                         
                        
                            drop- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim dropped the glass.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        māš 
                        x̌ār 
                        čos-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            1 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            city 
                         
                        
                            look-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim runs our town.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        Lola-ti 
                        dargīl 
                        suδǰ 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            sad 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pf 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim misses Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_OBLdamti 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBLdamti 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        Lola 
                        dām-ti 
                        tīz-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            back- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            go-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim follows Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL-SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL-SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        as 
                        vorǰ-ti 
                        xāv-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            horse- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            descend- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim got down from the horse.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola 
                        radio 
                        niɣůɣ̌-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            radio 
                         
                        
                            listen-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola is listening to radio.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Lola 
                        xu 
                        nān 
                        niɣůɣ̌-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            mother 
                         
                        
                            listen-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Lola obeys his mother.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        soz 
                        x̌īn-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            song 
                         
                        
                            hear-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim hears the music.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        asal 
                        x̌uvd=qati 
                        alalaš 
                        sut 
                     
                    
                        
                            honey 
                         
                        
                            milk= 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            mix 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_EQ 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EQ 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        tar 
                        abri-yen 
                        čos-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            cloud- 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            look-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim is looking at the clouds.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        xu 
                        kurtā 
                        weδ-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            shirt 
                         
                        
                            put- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim took off his shirt.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        Lola 
                        xu 
                        xūδm-and 
                        wīn-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            dream- 
                            loc 
                         
                        
                            see-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim dreams about Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        Saida=qati 
                        rozi 
                        sut 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            contented 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed agreed with Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Naǰiba 
                        Safina=qati 
                        δêd 
                        sat 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            quarrel 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Najiba had a quarrel with Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_NOM(NO.AGR) 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM(NO.AGR) 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        yid 
                        garδā 
                        aray 
                        som 
                     
                    
                        
                            d 
                            2. 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            bread 
                         
                        
                            three 
                         
                        
                            somoni 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘This bread costs three somoni.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        wam 
                        wiδič-ti 
                        poθ 
                        weδ-d 
                        at 
                        yā 
                        wam-ti 
                        na-angix-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            bird- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            bullet 
                         
                        
                            put- 
                            pst 
                         
                        
                            add 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            f 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                            - 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            neg 
                            -hit- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil shot (let a bullet go) at the bird, but it (the bullet) did not hit it.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        qand 
                        ar 
                        xu 
                        čīni 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            sugar 
                         
                        
                            prep 
                            . 
                            down 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            cup 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil poured the sugar into the cup.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        yu=yi 
                        xu 
                        wix̌īӡ-en 
                        binês-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            key- 
                            pl 
                         
                        
                            lose- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘He lost his keys.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_PREP.DOWN 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: PREP.DOWN 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        yu 
                        δorg 
                        ar 
                        x̌ac 
                        ɣůt 
                        nūs-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            stick 
                         
                        
                            prep 
                            . 
                            down 
                         
                        
                            water 
                         
                        
                            diving 
                         
                        
                            sit- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘The log sank in the water.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        Azim 
                        zīd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            kill. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil killed Azim.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        Azim 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            give. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil hit Azim.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed=i 
                        Saida 
                        bā 
                        ču 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            kiss 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed kissed Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Karamšo=yi 
                        aǰoyīb 
                        kitob 
                        x̌êyd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            interesting 
                         
                        
                            book 
                         
                        
                            read. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Karamsho read an interesting book.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil=i 
                        xu 
                        angix̌t 
                        ǰumben-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            finger 
                         
                        
                            move- 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil moved his finger.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil 
                        Azim 
                        urmat 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            respect 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil respects Azim.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        as 
                        xu 
                        puc 
                        rozi 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            son 
                         
                        
                            contented 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed is satisfied with his son.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        Saida-ti 
                        ošiq 
                        suδǰ 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            loving 
                         
                        
                            go. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            pf 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed fell in love with Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_DAT 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed 
                        Saida-ra 
                        bowari 
                        δī-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            trust 
                         
                        
                            give-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed trusts Saida.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: XY 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim-ard 
                        as 
                        wi 
                        nān 
                        rām 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            mother 
                         
                        
                            pity 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim sympathises with his mother.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Naǰiba 
                        Safina=qati 
                        qayti 
                        kix̌-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            envy 
                         
                        
                            do-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Najiba envies Safina.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Karamšo 
                        qār 
                        Dovlatšo=qati 
                        sifīδ-ǰ 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            anger 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            rise- 
                            pf 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Karamsho is angry with Dovlatsho.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim 
                        wi 
                        padarka=qati 
                        ayrůn 
                        red 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            d 
                            3. 
                            m 
                            . 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            gift= 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            surprised 
                         
                        
                            remain. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim was surprised at the gift.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Azim=i 
                        čoy 
                        žīwǰ 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            tea 
                         
                        
                            love 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Azim loves tea.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_SUP 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: SUP 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        mu 
                        tāt=i 
                        kaš 
                        čoy-ti 
                        ayš 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            1 
                            sg 
                            . 
                            obl 
                         
                        
                            father=3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            hot 
                         
                        
                            tea- 
                            sup 
                         
                        
                            pleasure 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘My father enjoys hot tea.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            DAT_NOM.CL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: DAT 
                     
                    
                        Y: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: X 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Ahmed-ard 
                        naw 
                        telefun 
                        for-t 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            - 
                            dat 
                         
                        
                            new 
                         
                        
                            phone 
                         
                        
                            want-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Ahmed wants a new mobile phone.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EQ 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EQ 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil 
                        tar 
                        Lola 
                        dar-qār 
                        δod 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            eq 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            angry 
                         
                        
                            fall. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil holds a grudge against Lola.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Nizora 
                        Safina=qati 
                        malol 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            pn 
                            = 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            offended 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Nizora took offence at Safina.’ 
                     
                    
                        Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            TR 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: OBL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: TR 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Towus=i 
                        xu 
                        amsoya 
                        xafā 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                            =3 
                            sg 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            neighbour 
                         
                        
                            upset 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Towus upset her neighbour.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.CL_INS 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: INS 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Šamil 
                        xu 
                        puc=qati 
                        xafā 
                        čūd 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            son= 
                            ins 
                         
                        
                            upset 
                         
                        
                            do. 
                            pst 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Shamil got upset with his son.’ 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NA 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: * 
                     
                    
                        Y: * 
                     
                    
                        Locus: * 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        
                            * 
                         
                     
                    
                        * 
                     
                    
                        Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained. 
                     
                
             
         
     
    
        
        
            
                
                    
                        
                            Valency pattern: 
                            NOM.NO.CL_EL 
                         
                     
                    
                        X: NOM.NO.CL 
                     
                    
                        Y: EL 
                     
                    
                        Locus: Y 
                     
                
             
            
                
                    
                        Dovlatšo 
                        as 
                        xu 
                        qad 
                        x̌armindā 
                        sů-d 
                     
                    
                        
                            pn 
                         
                        
                            el 
                         
                        
                            refl 
                         
                        
                            height 
                         
                        
                            embarrassed 
                         
                        
                            go-3 
                            sg 
                         
                     
                    
                        ‘Dovlatsho is embarrassed about his height.’