BivalTyp

Shughni

Contributed by Daria Chistiakova (Academia.edu profile) and Daria Ryzhova (Academia.edu profile)

D.Ch.'s photo D.R.'s photo

How to cite

Chistiakova, Daria & Daria Ryzhova. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Shughni. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on January 1, 2023; last revised on September 24, 2025.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Shughni shows nominative-accusative alignment with elements of split-intransitivity, overtly expressed in a limited number of contexts. In the present tense, the verb obligatorily agrees with the subject (S or A argument) via person-number agreement suffixes. In the past tenses, the verb can agree with the subject via second-position person-number agreement clitics. Some intransitive verbs in the past tenses also agree with the subject in gender through vowel alternation. There is no flagging on nouns in core argument positions (S, A, or O). Non-core arguments are flagged with prepositions and/or postpositions. The standard word order is SOV.

In the basic transitive construction, both core arguments, if expressed by nouns, remain unflagged. However, personal pronouns and demonstratives differentiate between the nominative (direct) case for the A-argument and oblique case, for the O-argument, annotated as "OBL" in the valency class tags below. Apart from this, in the past tense, A-arguments are obligatorily indexed by the subject clitic =i, as in(1).


(1)  Šamil=i  Azim  zīd
     PN=3SG   PN    kill.PST
     ‘Shamil killed Azim.’

While all intransitive subjects pattern with transitive subjects in terms of flagging, there are two types of intransitive subjects differentiated in terms of indexing. Some of them (annotated as NOM.CL in the valency class tags below) do receive the same =i clitic, as in (2), while others (annotated as NOM.NO.CL in the valency class tags) do not, as in (3).


(2) Ahmed=i  as  Karamšo  yod
    PN=3SG   EL  PN       bring.PST
    ‘Ahmed beat Karamsho.’

(3) Azim  as  čīd    nax̌tūy-d
    PN    EL  house  go.out-PST
    ‘Azim went out of the house.’

Thus, Shughni displays the verb-determined variety of split intransitivity. This is relevant for the classification of valency patterns. For example, the "NOM.CLEL" and "NOM.NO.CLEL" are classified as distinct valency patterns below. To correctly identify the verb's valency pattern it was necessary to analyze its behavior in the past tense, sometimes beyond the questionnaire sentence translation as provided below.

Case system

There is no morphological case on nouns. Personal pronouns and demonstratives have three case-marked forms: direct (nominative), oblique and dative. Demonstratives have deictic, anaphoric and adnominal uses, the latter typically with definite nouns or noun phrases. In adnominal usage, direct or oblique case of the demonstrative reflects the syntactic role of the modified noun (analytical case [Kerimova & Rastorgueva 1975: 198; Arkadiev 2006: 6]). In example (4) wi xêx̌čak [D3.M.SG OBL branch] ‘the branch’ is a direct object in the oblique case, which is evident from the oblique form of the demonstrative.


(4) Ahmed=i  wi           xêx̌čak  xām   δod
    PN=3SG   D3.M.SG.OBL  branch  bend  give.PST
    ‘Ahmed bent the branch.’

Verb lemmas

Verbs are given in the infinitive form. Complex verbs are shown as phrases consisting of a non-verbal component and a verb in the infinitive form. Non-verbal predicates are shown as phrases consisting of a non-verbal component and a verb vidow ‘to be’ in the infinitive form.

Glossing abbreviations

ADD – additive; ADV – adverbializer; AUX – auxiliary verb; D – demonstrative; DAT – dative; DIM – diminutive; EL – elative; EM – emphasizer; EQ – equative; F – feminine; IMPER – imperative; INF – infinitive; INS – instrumental; LOC – locative; M – masculine; NEG – negative; OBL – oblique; P.LOC – possessive locative; PF – perfect; PL – pluralis; PN – personal name; PREP.DOWN - preposition of downward direction; PREP.UP - preposition of upward direction; PST – past; REFL – reflexive; SG – singular; SUB – sublative; SUBST – substantivizer; SUP – superessive.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain dārδ čīdow

Valency pattern: LOC_NOM.CL
X: LOC
Y: NOM.CL
Locus: X
Ahmed-and wi kāl dārδ kix̌-t
pn - loc d 3. m . sg . obl head pain do-3 sg
‘Ahmed has a headache.’

2. have (illness) vidow

Valency pattern: LOC_NOM.NO.CL
X: LOC
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Lola-yand rāk kasali
pn - loc cancer illness
‘Lola has cancer.’
Note: In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

3. be afraid x̌oǰ δêrtow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EL
X: NOM.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Ahmed as kūd x̌oǰ δêr-t
pn el dog fear aux -3 sg
‘Ahmed is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw šič δêdow1

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i yakum žīr šič δod
pn =3 sg first stone throw give. pst
‘Ahmed threw a stone first.’

5. have enough firīptow

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM.NO.CL
X: DAT
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Ahmed-and wi pūl wi-rd firop-t
pn - loc d 3. m . sg . obl money d 3. m . sg . obl - dat reach-3 sg
‘Ahmed has enough money.’
Note: The genuine argument is the pronoun in the LAT form. External possessor marked by LOC is optional.

6. resemble mūnand vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EQ
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EQ
Locus: Y
Ahmed tar xu bob mūnand
pn eq refl grandfather similar
‘Ahmed resembles his grandfather.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

7. believe bowari δêdow1

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_DAT
X: NOM.CL
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Ahmed Azim-ard bowari δī-d
pn pn - dat trust give-3 sg
‘Ahmed believes Azim.’

8. take zêx̌tow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i kitob as tažerka-ti zox̌-t
pn =3 sg book el shelf- sup take- pst
‘Azim took a book from the shelf.’

9. see wīntow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim čīd wīn-t
pn house see-3 sg
‘Azim sees a house.’

10. influence tāsīr čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_SUP
X: NOM.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
sol wux̌-ti tāsīr kix̌-t
year memory- sup influence do-3 sg
‘Age influences memory.’

11. encounter wīntow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i Azim půnd-ti wīn-t
pn =3 sg pn road- sup see- pst
‘Ahmed encountered Azim on the road.’

12. enter dedow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EQ
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EQ
Locus: Y
Ahmed tar čīd ded
pn eq house enter. pst
‘Ahmed entered the house.’

13. win yêdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EL
X: NOM.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Ahmed=i as Karamšo yod
pn =3 sg el pn bring. pst
‘Ahmed beat Karamsho.’

14. go out nax̌tīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Azim as čīd nax̌tūy-d
pn el house go.out- pst
‘Azim went out of the house.’

15. drive ay čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i wam žow ay čūd wox̌ xīd
pn =3 sg d 3. f . sg . obl cow expulsion do. pst grass eat. inf
‘Azim is driving the cow to graze.’

16. bend xām δêdow1

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i wi xêx̌čak xām δod
pn =3 sg d 3. m . sg . obl branch bend give. pst
‘Ahmed bent the branch.’

17. tell lůvdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_DAT
X: NOM.CL
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Azim=i Lola-yard lůd: te tar čīd=aθ
pn =3 sg pn - dat say. pst go. imper eq house= adv
‘Azim told Lola: “Go home”.’

18. hold anǰīvdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i mu kitob anǰūv-d
pn =3 sg 1 sg . obl book hold- pst
‘Ahmed was holding my book.’

19. catch up daryov čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i Karamšo daryov čūd
pn =3 sg pn capture do. pst
‘Ahmed caught up with Karamsho.’

20. milk δīwdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Saida=yi žow δūy-d
pn =3 sg cow milk- pst
‘Saida milked the cow.’

21. reach firīptow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EQ
X: NOM.CL
Y: EQ
Locus: Y
Azim=i lodka=qati tar qoq-i firīp-t
pn =3 sg boat= ins eq dry- subst reach- pst
‘Azim reached the bank in a boat.’

22. touch xu δêdow1

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_PREP.UP-LOC
X: NOM.CL
Y: PREP.UP-LOC
Locus: Y
Azim=i pi burǰ-and xu δod xu ɣažd sut
pn =3 sg prep . up wall- loc refl give. pst add dirty go. m . pst
‘Azim touched the wall and got dirty.’

23. fight δêd čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Naǰiba Safina=qati δêd kix̌-t
pn pn = ins quarrel do-3 sg
‘Najiba is fighting with Safina.’

24. be friends *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Ahmed=at Azim=en ox̌no-yen
pn = add pn =3 pl friend- pl
‘Ahmed is friends with Azim.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

25. think fikri čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim Lola fikri kix̌-t
pn pn thought do-3 sg
‘Azim is thinking about Lola.’

26. eat xīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i mūn xūd
pn =3 sg apple eat. pst
‘Ahmed ate an apple.’

27. fry pêxtow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i gūx̌t pêx-t
pn =3 sg meat cook- pst
‘Azim cooked the meat.’

28. wait nīstow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_PREP.UP
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: PREP.UP
Locus: Y
Azim pi Lola nūs-č
pn prep . up pn sit. m - pf
‘Azim is waiting for Lola.’

29. forget rinīx̌tow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EL
X: NOM.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Azim=i as wi yiga půnd rinūx̌-t
pn =3 sg el d 3. m . sg . obl another road forget- pst
‘Azim forgot about the other road.’

30. depend wobastā vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
pamyat as vozrast wobastā
memory el age dependent
‘Memory depends on age.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

31. call qīwdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i xu nān qīw-d
pn =3 sg refl mother call- pst
‘Azim called his mother.’

32. get to know balad sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Ahmed Saida=qati yi sol tar piro balad sut
pn pn = ins one year eq ahead familiar go. m . pst
‘Ahmed got to know Saida a year ago.’

33. know fāmtow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed Saida fām-t
pn pn know-3 sg
‘Ahmed knows Saida.’

34. play (instrument) niwêzdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_SUP
X: NOM.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
Ahmed gitar-ti niwoz-d
pn guitar- sup play-3 sg
‘Ahmed is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid zibidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Ahmed as Saida zibīn-t
pn el pn jump-3 sg
‘Ahmed avoids Saida.’

36. make čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i pūrg-anǰavīǰ=ak xůbaθ čūd
pn =3 sg mousetrap= dim himself do. pst
‘Azim made a mousetrap himself.’

37. make fun qīn čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EL
X: NOM.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Ahmed as Saida qīn kix̌-t
pn el pn difficult do-3 sg
‘Ahmed is making fun of Saida.’

38. have vidow

Valency pattern: LOC_NOM.NO.CL
X: LOC
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Ahmed-and mošin
pn - loc car
‘Ahmed has a car.’
Note: In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

39. look for x̌ikīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim xu wix̌īӡ-en x̌ikīr-t
pn refl key- pl look.for-3 sg
‘Azim is looking for his keys.’

40. paint rang čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i xu divi rang čūd
pn =3 sg refl door color do. pst
‘Azim painted the door.’

41. bite pirentow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
yu kūd=i wam vorǰ piren-t
d 3. m . sg dog=3 sg d 3. f . sg . obl horse bite- pst
‘The dog bit the horse.’

42. forfeit redow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_beOBL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: beOBL
Locus: Y
Ahmed be-malā red
pn without-dwelling remain. pst
‘Ahmed lost his house.’

43. try to catch anǰīvdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed pīš anǰīv-d
pn cat catch-3 sg
‘Ahmed is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break virix̌tow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i wi sêx virux̌-t
pn =3 sg d 3. m . sg . obl stick break- pst
‘Azim broke a stick.’

45. flatter *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

46. love (person) žīwǰdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i Saida žīwǰ
pn =3 sg pn love
‘Ahmed loves Saida.’

47. wave δust weδdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Azim lemol-ak=qati δust weδ-d
pn headscarf- dim = ins hand put- pst
‘Azim is waving a headscarf.’

48. dream *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

49. wash zinêdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i xu čīni zino-d
pn =3 sg refl cup wash- pst
‘Ahmed washed the cup.’

50. put on pinīwdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Šamil=i xu laq-en pinūy-d
pn =3 sg refl pants- pl put.on- pst
‘Shamil put on his trousers.’

51. be called nům vidow

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
ik-di kočor nům kumpas
em - d 2. m . sg . obl thing name compass
‘This object is called a compass.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

52. punish kud δêdow1

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i xu puc kud δod
pn =3 sg refl son dog give. pst
‘Azim punished his son.’

53. attack firīptow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_SUP
X: NOM.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
xirs=i wi ribak-ti firīp-t
bear=3 sg d 3. m . sg . obl fisherman- sup reach- pst
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) pur sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
čalak x̌ac=qati pur sat
pail water= ins much go. f . pst
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find virêdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i čilā virū-d půnd=ti
pn =3 sg ring find- pst road= sup
‘Azim found a ring on the road.’

56. be short nafirīptow

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM.NO.CL
X: DAT
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Šamil-ard aray somoni=ga na-firop-t
pn - dat three somoni=more neg -reach-3 sg
‘Shamil is three somoni short.’

57. hate bad vidow

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM.NO.CL
X: DAT
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Šamil-ard Azim dis=ga bad
pn - dat pn such=more bad
‘Shamil hates Azim.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

58. like xuš vidow

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM.NO.CL
X: DAT
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Azim-ard ik-am kurtā xuš
pn - dat em - d 1. sg shirt pleasant
‘Azim likes this shirt.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

59. need darkor vidow

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM.NO.CL
X: DAT
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Azim-ard pūl darkor
pn - dat money needed
‘Azim needs money.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

60. surround vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_OBLgarginuxa
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: OBLgarginuxa
Locus: Y
burǰ-en x̌ār garginūx̌ā
wall- pl city around
‘Walls surround the city.’
Note: In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

61. remain redow

Valency pattern: P.LOC_NOM.NO.CL
X: P.LOC
Y: NOM.NO.CL
Locus: X
Azim-ǰā δis som=ga red
pn - p . loc ten somoni=more remain. pst
‘Azim has ten somoni left.’

62. answer ǰawob δêdow1

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_DAT
X: NOM.CL
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Azim=i molim-ard ǰawob δod
pn =3 sg teacher- dat answer give. pst
‘Azim answered the teacher.’

63. open yet čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i banka yet čūd
pn =3 sg jar open do. pst
‘Azim opened a can.’

64. be different farq vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
mu kurtā as tu kurtā farq
1 sg . obl shirt el 2 sg shirt difference
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

65. fall behind zibo δêdow2

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Azim as Lola zibo δod
pn el pn behind fall. pst
‘Azim fell behind Lola.’

66. plough čīntow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim agorod čůn-t
pn garden dig-3 sg
‘Azim is digging the garden.’

67. smell bůy δêdow2

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
wi δust-en benzin bůy δiy-en
d 3. m . sg . obl hand- pl oil smell fall-3 pl
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

68. cross naɣ̌ǰīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Azim as půnd naɣ̌ǰī-d
pn el road pass- pst
‘Azim crossed the road.’

69. sing lůdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Lola=yi xušrūy soz lůd
pn =3 sg beautiful song sing. pst
‘Lola sang a beautiful song.’

70. write nivištow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Lola=yi xāt niviš-t
pn =3 sg letter write- pst
‘Lola wrote a letter.’

71. drink birêx̌tow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Lola=yi x̌ūvd birox̌-t
pn =3 sg milk drink- pst
‘Lola drank the milk.’

72. melt ob čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i tillo kandi ob čūd
pn =3 sg gold piece water do. pst
‘Azim melted a piece of gold.’

73. match ǰūr yatow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
ik-am tasma mu kurtā=qati ǰūr yoδ-d
em - d 1. sg belt 1 sg . obl dress= ins pair come-3 sg
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’

74. leave tark čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i xu x̌ār tark čūd
pn =3 sg refl city leave do. pst
‘Azim left his native city.’

75. cover čust čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
pilês fuk pol čust kix̌-t
carpet all floor closed do-3 sg
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember fāmtow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Saida di čīd xip=aθ fam-t
pn d 2. m . sg . obl house good= adv know-3 sg
‘Saida remembers the house well.’

77. help yordam čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_DAT
X: NOM.CL
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Šamil=i Lola-yard yordam čūd
pn =3 sg pn - dat help do. pst
‘Shamil helped Lola.’

78. understand (language) fāmtow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Saida xuɣ̌nůni fam-t
pn s hughni know-3 sg
‘Saida understands Shughni.’

79. hit (target) δêdow1

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
otex̌ak=ta čīd δod
lightning= em house give. pst
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself xu zaxmi čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Azim=i xu têɣ-ak=qati zaxmi čūd
pn =3 sg refl razor- dim = ins injured do. pst
‘Azim cut himself with a razor.’

81. get stuck xax̌ sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_SUP
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
stakan stol-ti xax̌ sut
glass table- sup hard go. m . pst
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) nayêdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EL
X: NOM.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Šamil=i as Azima na-yo-d
pn =3 sg el pn neg -win- pst
‘Shamil lost to Azim.’

83. be glad xuš sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EQ
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EQ
Locus: Y
Azim tar wi xāt xuš sut
pn eq d 3. m . sg . obl letter happy go. m . pst
‘Azim was glad about the letter.’

84. speak naqli čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Azim Lola=qati naqli kix̌-t
pn pn = ins conversation do-3 sg
‘Azim is speaking with Lola.’

85. give birth vīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Lola=yi puc vūd
pn =3 sg son bring. pst
‘Lola gave birth to a son.’

86. drop pitêwdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i čaška pitêw-d
pn =3 sg cup drop- pst
‘Azim dropped the glass.’

87. govern čīx̌tow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim māš x̌ār čos-t
pn 1 pl city look-3 sg
‘Azim runs our town.’

88. miss dargil sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_SUP
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
Azim Lola-ti dargīl suδǰ
pn pn - sup sad go. m . pf
‘Azim misses Lola.’

89. follow tīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_OBLdamti
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: OBLdamti
Locus: Y
Azim Lola dām-ti tīz-d
pn pn back- sup go-3 sg
‘Azim follows Lola.’

90. dismount xāvdow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL-SUP
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL-SUP
Locus: Y
Azim as vorǰ-ti xāv-d
pn el horse- sup descend- pst
‘Azim got down from the horse.’

91. listen niɣix̌tow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Lola radio niɣůɣ̌-d
pn radio listen-3 sg
‘Lola is listening to radio.’

92. obey niɣix̌tow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Lola xu nān niɣůɣ̌-d
pn refl mother listen-3 sg
‘Lola obeys his mother.’

93. hear x̌īdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim soz x̌īn-t
pn song hear-3 sg
‘Azim hears the music.’

94. mix alalaš sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
asal x̌uvd=qati alalaš sut
honey milk= ins mix go. m . pst
‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’

95. look čīx̌tow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_EQ
X: NOM.CL
Y: EQ
Locus: Y
Azim tar abri-yen čos-t
pn eq cloud- pl look-3 sg
‘Azim is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off weδdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim xu kurtā weδ-d
pn refl shirt put- pst
‘Azim took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) xūδmand wīntow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim Lola xu xūδm-and wīn-t
pn pn refl dream- loc see-3 sg
‘Azim dreams about Lola.’

98. agree rozi sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Ahmed Saida=qati rozi sut
pn pn = ins contented go. m . pst
‘Ahmed agreed with Saida.’

99. have a quarrel δêd sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Naǰiba Safina=qati δêd sat
pn pn = ins quarrel go. f . pst
‘Najiba had a quarrel with Saida.’

100. cost vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_NOM(NO.AGR)
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: NOM(NO.AGR)
Locus: Y
yid garδā aray som
d 2. sg bread three somoni
‘This bread costs three somoni.’

101. shoot at poθ weδdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_SUP
X: NOM.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
Šamil=i wam wiδič-ti poθ weδ-d at yā wam-ti na-angix-t
pn =3 sg d 3. f . sg . obl bird- sup bullet put- pst add d 3. f . sg d 3. f . sg . obl - sup neg -hit- pst
‘Shamil shot (let a bullet go) at the bird, but it (the bullet) did not hit it.’

102. pour čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Šamil=i qand ar xu čīni čūd
pn =3 sg sugar prep . down refl cup do. pst
‘Shamil poured the sugar into the cup.’

103. lose binêstow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
yu=yi xu wix̌īӡ-en binês-t
d 3. m . sg =3 sg refl key- pl lose- pst
‘He lost his keys.’

104. sink ɣůt nīstow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_PREP.DOWN
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: PREP.DOWN
Locus: Y
yu δorg ar x̌ac ɣůt nūs-t
d 3. m . sg stick prep . down water diving sit- pst
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill zīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Šamil=i Azim zīd
pn =3 sg pn kill. pst
‘Shamil killed Azim.’

106. hit δêdow1

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Šamil=i Azim δod
pn =3 sg pn give. pst
‘Shamil hit Azim.’

107. kiss bā čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Ahmed=i Saida bā ču
pn =3 sg pn kiss do. pst
‘Ahmed kissed Saida.’

108. read x̌êydow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Karamšo=yi aǰoyīb kitob x̌êyd
pn =3 sg interesting book read. pst
‘Karamsho read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) ǰumbentow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Šamil=i xu angix̌t ǰumben-t
pn =3 sg refl finger move- pst
‘Shamil moved his finger.’

110. respect urmat čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Šamil Azim urmat kix̌-t
pn pn respect do-3 sg
‘Shamil respects Azim.’

111. be squeamish *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

112. be content rozi vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Ahmed as xu puc rozi
pn el refl son contented
‘Ahmed is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

113. fall in love ošiq sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_SUP
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
Ahmed Saida-ti ošiq suδǰ
pn pn - sup loving go. m . pf
‘Ahmed fell in love with Saida.’

114. trust bowari δêdow1

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_DAT
X: NOM.CL
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
Ahmed Saida-ra bowari δī-d
pn pn - dat trust give-3 sg
‘Ahmed trusts Saida.’

115. sympathise rām čīdow

Valency pattern: DAT_EL
X: DAT
Y: EL
Locus: XY
Azim-ard as wi nān rām kix̌-t
pn - dat el d 3. m . sg . obl mother pity do-3 sg
‘Azim sympathises with his mother.’

116. envy qayti čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Naǰiba Safina=qati qayti kix̌-t
pn pn = ins envy do-3 sg
‘Najiba envies Safina.’

117. be angry qār sifentow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Karamšo qār Dovlatšo=qati sifīδ-ǰ
pn anger pn = ins rise- pf
‘Karamsho is angry with Dovlatsho.’

118. be surprised ayrůn rêdow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Azim wi padarka=qati ayrůn red
pn d 3. m . sg . obl gift= ins surprised remain. pst
‘Azim was surprised at the gift.’

119. love (tea) žīwǰdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Azim=i čoy žīwǰ
pn =3 sg tea love
‘Azim loves tea.’

120. enjoy ayš čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_SUP
X: NOM.CL
Y: SUP
Locus: Y
mu tāt=i kaš čoy-ti ayš čūd
1 sg . obl father=3 sg hot tea- sup pleasure do. pst
‘My father enjoys hot tea.’

121. want fortow

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM.CL
X: DAT
Y: NOM.CL
Locus: X
Ahmed-ard naw telefun for-t
pn - dat new phone want-3 sg
‘Ahmed wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge darqār δêdow2

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EQ
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EQ
Locus: Y
Šamil tar Lola dar-qār δod
pn eq pn angry fall. pst
‘Shamil holds a grudge against Lola.’

123. take offence malol vidow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_INS
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Nizora Safina=qati malol
pn pn = ins offended
‘Nizora took offence at Safina.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. In this example, the verb ‘to be’ is non-overt.

124. upset xafā čīdow

Valency pattern: TR
X: NOM.CL
Y: OBL
Locus: TR
Towus=i xu amsoya xafā čūd
pn =3 sg refl neighbour upset do. pst
‘Towus upset her neighbour.’

125. marvel *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

126. despise *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

127. get upset xafā čīdow

Valency pattern: NOM.CL_INS
X: NOM.CL
Y: INS
Locus: Y
Šamil xu puc=qati xafā čūd
pn refl son= ins upset do. pst
‘Shamil got upset with his son.’

128. get irritated *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

129. be fond *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

130. be shy x̌armindā sitow

Valency pattern: NOM.NO.CL_EL
X: NOM.NO.CL
Y: EL
Locus: Y
Dovlatšo as xu qad x̌armindā sů-d
pn el refl height embarrassed go-3 sg
‘Dovlatsho is embarrassed about his height.’