Svan

Contributed by Alexander Rostovtsev-Popiel (Academia.edu profile)

A.P.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2023. The language of elicitation was Georgian. The consultant is Cici Guledani (Lenǯeri, Upper Bal dialect).

How to cite

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Svan. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on October 13, 2023; last revised on September 24, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Coordinates: 42.91, 42.59.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Kartvelian, genus: Kartvelian.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Valency classes of Svan verbs are primarily defined by their case frames. However, many Svan verbs, including nearly all transitive verbs, display the so-called “case-shift”: a phenomenon whereby the case marking of arguments depends on the verb’s TAM form. Svan TAM forms group into so-called “series”, where Series I is present/future, Series II is aorist/optative, and Series III is perfect/pluperfect. Case marking in verbs that undergo case-shift is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Verbs with case-shift: case marking in the three series

	Subject	Direct object	Indirect object
Series I: present/future	NOM	DAT	DAT
Series II: aorist/optative	ERG	NOM	DAT
Series III: perfect/pluperfect	DAT	NOM	OBL (i)

(i) OBL stands here for “oblique” and covers Benefactive and Sociative.

For the purposes of the dataset below, the verb is considered transitive if and only if it displays case-shift so that its X-argument is case-marked as the “Subject”, and its Y-argument is case-marked as the “Direct object” in Table 1. The valency-encoding devices for the two core arguments in transitive constructions are labeled as “ERG” and “NOM” respectively, even if the actual sentence happens to belong to Series I, where we observe no ergative case-marking (Series III forms are not found in the questionnaire below). For example, the equivalent of ‘plough’ (#66) in (2) is allotted to the same class as the equivalent of ‘take’ (#8) in (1), even though the two exemplar sentences display discrepant case frames.

(1)  maizer-d  taro-xen   lǝir-Ø    än-Ø-k'id
     PN-ERG    shelf-ABL  book-NOM  PRV:PROX-DO3-take
     ‘Maizer took a book from the shelf.’

(2)  maizer-Ø  dab-s      Ø-a-qn-i
     PN-NOM    field-DAT  DO3-FACT-plough-PRS
     ‘Maizer is ploughing the field.’

Thus, the labels used in the annotation of transitive verbs correspond to the actual case frame in Series II (ERG, NOM). The same convention applies to case-shift verbs that do not meet the aforementioned transitivity criterion. For example, the equivalent of ‘obey’ (#92) is labeled as an “ERG_DAT” verb, even though the actual questionnaire sentence in (3) belongs to Series I and displays a nominative subject (X argument).

(3)  maizer-Ø  dede-s      čiγad   x-o-ǯräw-i
     PN-NOM    mother-DAT  always  IO3-VER:O-obey-PRS
     ‘Maizer obeys (his) mother.’

The distinction between verbs with and without case-shift is part of the traditional four-way classification of Kartvelian verbs that is based on the morphological and morphosyntactic properties, whereby verbs with case-shift belong to Classes I and III, see Rostovtsev-Popiel (2016) for further details (on Georgian) and Rostovtsev-Popiel 2023 (on Mingrelian). The verbs in Class II, as in (4), display nominative subjects across all series, and the verbs in Class IV, as in (5), display dative subjects across all series.

(4)  maizer-Ø  lile-s  x-e-lmes-ieːl
     PN-NOM    PN-DAT  IO3-VER:R-praise-VPL
     ‘Maizer flatters Lile.’

(5)  maizer-s  grip'-Ø  x-aː-r
     PN-DAT    flu-NOM  IO3-VER:SUP-have
     ‘Maizer has the flu.’ (#2)

Note that the verbs in (2), (3) and (4) belong to distinct valency classes as identified in this dataset, although the observed case marking patterns in the present-tense questionnaire sentences are identical. In bivalent and trivalent verbs, up to two arguments can be cross-referenced on the verb overtly, by prefixal and suffixal markers; only arguments flagged by nominative, ergative and dative cases can be cross-referenced.

Case system

There are seven basic grammatical cases: nominative, ergative, dative, genitive, instrumental, adverbial, and benefactive. Apart from the grammatical cases, there are around a dozen semantic cases, primarily coded by semi-detachable postpositional markers. Among these, ablative, elative, inessive, sociative, sublative, and superessive are found in the dataset.

References

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2016. Argumentstruktur und aspektuelle Komposition im Georgischen. Georgica 37: 35–51.

Rostovtsev-Popiel, Alexander. 2023. Case-Shift on Megrelian Adverbs, in: Chumakina, Marina, Kaye, Steven, and Oliver Bond (eds.). Agreement beyond the Verb: Unusual Targets, Unexpected Domains. Oxford University Press: 264–305.

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited in the 3SG form of either Present or Future tense (as indicated in each instance). Future forms are shown in case the Present tense form is not sufficiently informative with respect to the verb's lexical semantics.

Glossing abbreviations

ABL — ablative; ALL – allative; AUG – augment; BEN – benefactive; DAT — dative; DEM — demonstrative; DIST — distal; DO — direct object; DOWNWARD – preverb denoting downward motion; EL – elative; ERG — ergative; FACT — factitive; FUT — future; GEN — genitive; INCL – inclusive; INESS — inessive; INS — instrumental; INTR — intransitive; INWARD – preverb denoting downward motion; IO — indirect object; NEG — negation; NOM — nominative; OBL — oblique; OUTWARD – preverb denoting outward motion; PL — plural; PN — person name; POSS — possessive; POT – potential; PROX — proximal; PRS — present; PRV — preverb; PST — past; S — subject marker; SG — singular; slightly — preverb with the meaning 'slightly', SOC — sociative; SUBL — sublative; SUPERESS — superessive; TR — transitive; VER:O — objective versionizer; VER:R — relative versionizer; VER:S — subjective versionizer; VER:SUP — superessive versionizer; VPL – verbal pluralizer.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain x-e-zg-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	txwim-Ø	x-e-zg-i
pn - dat	head- nom	io 3- ver : r -ache- prs
‘Maizer has a headache.’

2. have (illness) x-aː-r (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	grip'-Ø	x-aː-r
pn - dat	flu- nom	io 3- ver : sup -have
‘Maizer has the flu.’
Note: This root is used to mark alienable possession.

3. be afraid x-a-q'luːn-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_BEN

X: DAT

Y: BEN

Locus: XY

maizer-s	žeγ-išd	x-a-q'luːn-i
pn - dat	dog- ben	io 3- ver : sup -be_afraid- prs
‘Mainzer is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw a-k'waː-n-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	bäč-Ø	ad-Ø-k'wär
pn - erg	stone- nom	prv : dist - do 3-throw
‘Maizer threw a stone away.’

5. have enough k-a-x-aː-r (PRS/FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	warčxil-Ø	k-a-x-aː-r
pn - dat	money- nom	prv : outward - prv : dist - io 3- ver : sup -have
‘Maizer has/will have enough money.’
Note: 1. This root is used to mark alienable possession. 2. The presense of the preverb ka- makes both present and future readings possible.

6. resemble x-a-ǯeš (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	x-a-ǯeš
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : sup -resemble
‘Maizer resembles Gegi.’

7. believe x-a-ǯraːw-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN

X: DAT

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

maizer-s	gegiː-š	x-a-ǯraːw-a
pn - dat	pn - gen	io 3- ver : sup -believe- prs
‘Maizer believes Gegi.’

8. take i-k'ed (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	taro-xen	lǝir-Ø	än-Ø-k'id
pn - erg	shelf- abl	book- nom	prv : prox - do 3-take
‘Maizer took a book from the shelf.’

9. see x-o-sgd-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	kor-s	x-o-sgd-i
pn - nom	house- dat	io 3- ver : o -see- prs
‘Maizer sees a house.’

10. influence xola-Ø x-aː-r (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

al	bepwšw-s	liprebäːl-Ø	xola-Ø	x-aː-r
dem . prox	child- dat	excessive_affection- nom	bad- nom	io 3- ver : sup -have
‘Excessive affection spoils this child’ (lit. ‘To this child excessive affection is bad).’
Note: This root is used to mark alienable possession. The NP in the dative case has syntactic properties of the subject.

11. encounter x-e-xoːl-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	la-xː-wiːdː-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : sup -meet- pst
‘Maizer encountered Lile.’

12. enter es-Ø-γr-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_ALL.INESS

X: NOM

Y: ALL.INESS

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	kor-te-isga	aː-Ø-čäd
pn - nom	house- all - iness	prv : dist - s 3-go
‘Maizer went into the house.’

13. win x-ä-c'r-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	ž-a-x-c'ind-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : upward - prv : dist - io 3-beat- pst
‘Maizer beat Gegi.’

14. go out k-a-Ø-γr-i (FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL.EL

X: NOM

Y: ABL.EL

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	kor-xän-ka	k-aː-Ø-čäd
pn - nom	house- abl - el	prv : outward - prv : dist - s 3-go
‘Maizer went out of the house.’

15. drive a-Ø-rk'-äl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-Ø	k'umäš-s	laxw-te	a-Ø-rk'-äl-i
pn - nom	cattle- dat	slope_meadow- all	prv : dist - do 3-drive- vpl - prs
‘Maizer is driving the cow to the pasture.’

16. bend Ø-nik'w-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	ašxäl-Ø	an-Ø-nik'w-e
pn - erg	branch- nom	prv : prox - do 3-bend- pst
‘Maizer bent a branch.’

17. tell x-a-t'uːl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	lile-s	x-äː-kw-e
pn - erg	pn - dat	io 3- ver : sup -tell- pst
‘Maizer told Lile.’

18. hold x-o-qdaːn-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	ši-isga	lǝir-Ø	x-o-qdaːn-a
pn - dat	hand- iness	book- nom	io 3- ver : o -hold- prs
‘Maizer is holding a book in his hand.’

19. catch up x-e-h-a (PRS/FUT)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	la-h-xiːdː-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : slightly - io 3-catch_up- pst
‘Maizer caught up with Gegi.’

20. milk iː-šg-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	pir-Ø	an-iː-šg-e
pn - erg	cow- nom	prv : prox - do 3- ver : s -milk- pst
‘Maizer milked the cow.’

21. reach ä-h-i (PRS/FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_ALL.EL

X: ERG

Y: ALL.EL

Locus: Y

maizer-d	nap'ir-te-ka	ad-Ø-h-e
pn - erg	river_bank- all - el	prv : dist - s 3-reach- pst
‘Maizer reached the river bank.’

22. touch x-gdur-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	k'edel-s	lo-x-gudr-e
pn - nom	wall- dat	prv : slightly . ver : o - io 3-touch- pst
‘Maizer touched the wall.’

23. fight Ø-i-q'aːr-iel (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_SOC

X: NOM

Y: SOC

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-caxän	Ø-i-q'aːr-iel
pn - nom	pn - soc	s 3- ver : s -fight- vpl
‘Maizer is fighting with Gegi.’

24. be friends Ø-i-mpxng-äːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_SOC

X: NOM

Y: SOC

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-caxän	Ø-i-mpxng-äːl
pn - nom	pn - soc	s 3- ver : s -be_comrades- vpl
‘Maizer is friends with Gegi.’

25. think a-Ø-sk'oːr-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_SUPERESS

X: ERG

Y: SUPERESS

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-ži	a-Ø-sk'oːr-e
pn - nom	pn - superess	prv : dist - do 3-think- prs
‘Maizer is thinking about Lile.’

26. eat Ø-i-zb-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	lisgw-Ø	la-l-eːm
pn - erg	apple- nom	prv : slightly - s 3-eat
‘Maizer ate an apple.’

27. fry a-Ø-t'q'b-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	k'almax-Ø	an-Ø-t'q'ab-e
pn - erg	trout- nom	prv : dist - do 3-fry- pst
‘Maizer fried a fish.’

28. wait x-o-γl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	x-o-γl-i
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : o -wait- prs
‘Maizer is waiting for Lile.’

29. forget x-eː-šd(ǝ)n-i (PRS/FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	išgen	šuk'w-Ø	sga-la-x-äː-šdǝn
pn - dat	other	road- nom	prv : inward - prv : slightly - io 3- ver : sup -forget
‘Maizer forgot the other road.’

30. depend l-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: SUPERESS

Locus: Y

ala-Ø	eče-ži	l-i
dem . prox - nom	dem . dist - superess	s 3-be
‘This (thing) depends (lit. ‘is’) on that (thing).’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. This structure is rarely used in isolation. Typically, a dependent clause would be used, as in ‘Prices depend on (that) whether there are many tourists.’

31. call x-a-t'uːl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	gegi-s	la-x-t'wiːl
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : slightly - io 3-call
‘Maizer called Gegi.’

32. get to know a-Ø-tir-n-e (FUT)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	gegi-Ø	ešxu	zäj-ä	sgwebin	a-Ø-tir
pn - erg	pn - nom	one	year- gen	ahead	prv : dist - do 3-know
‘Maizer got to know Gegi a year ago.’

33. know x-o-tr-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	x-o-tr-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : o -know
‘Maizer knows Gegi.’

34. play (instrument) a-Ø-šwm-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: SUPERESS

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	git'ara-ži	a-Ø-šwm-i
pn - nom	guitar- superess	prv : dist -play- prs
‘Maizer is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid x-o-käb-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	x-o-käb-i
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : o -avoid- prs
‘Maizer avoids Gegi.’

36. make ä-Ø-sq'-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	säw-Ø	än-Ø-sq'-i
pn - erg	firewood_sledge- nom	prv : prox - ver : s -make- pst
‘Maizer made a firewood sledge.’

37. make fun x-e-lgac-äːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	x-e-lgac-äːl
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -joke- vpl
‘Maizer is making fun of Gegi.’

38. have x-a-q'-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	x-a-q'-a	mankana-Ø
pn - dat	io 3- ver : sup -want- prs	car- nom
‘Maizer has a car.’
Note: This root is associated with animate possessees (vehicles often tend to be included in this domain).

39. look for x-e-txeːl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	k'ǝl-ar-s	x-e-txeːl-i
pn - nom	key- pl - dat	io 3- ver : r -look_for- prs
‘Maizer is looking for (his) keys.’

40. paint a-Ø-γp'-eːn-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	qwila-Ø	ad-Ø-γäp'
pn - erg	stone_fence- nom	prv : dist - do 3-paint
‘Maizer painted the stone fence.’

41. bite x-e-qp-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

žeγ-d	maizer-s	ä-x-qäp
dog- erg	pn - dat	prv : dist - io 3-bite
‘A dog bit Maizer.’

42. forfeit a-Ø-kräw-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	larda-lazga-Ø	ad-Ø-karw-e
pn - erg	room-house- nom	prv : dist - do 3-lose- pst
‘Maizer lost (his) house.’

43. try to catch Ø-i-rm-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-Ø	cicw-s	Ø-i-rm-i
pn - nom	cat- dat	do 3- ver : s -catch- prs
‘Maizer is trying to catch a cat.’

44. break Ø-q'wič-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	pawa-Ø	a-Ø-q'wič
pn - erg	stick- nom	prv : dist - do 3-break
‘Maizer broke a stick.’

45. flatter x-e-lmes-ieːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	x-e-lmes-ieːl
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -praise- vpl
‘Maizer flatters Lile.’

46. love (person) x-a-lät' (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	lile-Ø	x-a-lät'
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : sup -love
‘Maizer loves Lile.’

47. wave Ø-a-käːwin-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-Ø	laqwc'äːn-s	Ø-a-käːwin-e
pn - nom	handkerchief- dat	do 3- fact -wave- prs
‘Maizer is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream Ø-i-wd-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	axne	mankana-s	Ø-i-wd-i
pn - nom	new	car- dat	do 3- ver : s -dream- prs
‘Maizer dreams of a new car.’

49. wash a-Ø-šq'wd-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	č'ika-Ø	a-Ø-šq'wed
pn - erg	cup- nom	prv : dist - do 3-wash
‘Maizer washed the cup.’

50. put on Ø-i-kw-em (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	šarwal-Ø	sga-lä-Ø-i-kw-e
pn - erg	trousers- nom	prv : inward - prv : slightly - do 3- ver : s -put_on- pst
‘Maizer put on (his) trousers.’

51. be called x-a-žx-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

ala-s	k'omp'as-Ø	x-a-žx-a
dem . prox - dat	compass- nom	io 3- ver : sup -be_called- prs
‘This (thing) is called a compass.’

52. punish *

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *




Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

53. attack x-e-k'äːl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

metxwiär-s	däšdw-Ø	la-x-kaːl-äːn
hunter- dat	bear- nom	prv : slightly - io 3-fly- vpl
‘A bear attacked (lit. ‘flew/rushed upon’) a hunter.’

54. fill (intr) Ø-i-gwš-iːl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_INS

X: NOM

Y: INS

Locus: Y

γwedra-Ø	nahäːndwiːr-wš	an-Ø-gweš-läːn
bucket- nom	rain_water- ins	prv : prox - s 3-fill- vpl
‘The bucket got filled with rain water.’

55. find Ø-i-tx-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	k'ǝl-är-Ø	ž-än-Ø-tx-e
pn - erg	key- pl - nom	prv : upward - prv : prox - do 3-find- pst
‘Maizer found (his) keys.’

56. be short x-a-k'l-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	ešxu	lar-Ø	x-a-k'l-i
pn - dat	one	l ari- nom	io 3- ver : sup -be_short- prs
‘Maizer is short of one Lari.’

57. hate x-ä-sisg (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	gegi-Ø	x-ä-sisg
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : sup -hate
‘Maizer hates Gegi.’

58. like xoča-Ø x-a-bž-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	al	pupäik'a-Ø	xoča-Ø	x-a-bž-a
pn - dat	dem . prox	jersey- nom	good- nom	io 3- ver : sup -deem- prs
‘Maizer likes this jersey’ (lit. ‘This jersey seems good to Miazer’).

59. need x-a-c'ǝx (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	warčxil-Ø	x-a-c'ǝx
pn - dat	money- nom	io 3- ver : sup -need
‘Maizer needs money.’

60. surround gǝrkäːnd x-aː-r (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

xäzw-s	gǝrkäːnd	qwila-Ø	x-aː-r
yard- dat	around	stone_fence- nom	io 3- ver : sup -have
‘The stone wall surrounds the yard (lit. ‘The yard has a stone wall around’).’
Note: This root is used to mark alienable possession. "gǝrkäːnd" is an adverb.

61. remain x-o-sd-en-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	ješwd	lar-Ø	ot-Ø-säd
pn - dat	ten	l ari- nom	prv : dist . ver : o . io 3-remain
‘Maizer has ten Laris left.’

62. answer x-ä-t'x-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	wičit'el-s	la-x-t'ix
pn - erg	teacher- dat	prv : slightly - io 3-return
‘Maizer answered (lit. ‘returned to’) the teacher.’

63. open Ø-pišg-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	bank'a-Ø	a-Ø-pišg
pn - erg	jar- nom	prv : dist - do 3-open
‘Maizer opened a jar.’

64. be different naxumsäːr-Ø l-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_ABL.EL

X: NOM

Y: ABL.EL

Locus: Y

al	č'ik-Ø	eǯ	č'ik-xän-ka	naxumsäːr-Ø	l-i
dem . prox	cup- nom	dem . dist	cup- abl - el	particular- nom	s 3-be
‘This cup is different from that cup.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind x-o-sd-en-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	č-o-x-säːd
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : downward : prv : dist - ver : o - io 3-remain
‘Maizer fell behind Gegi.’

66. plough Ø-a-qn-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-Ø	dab-s	Ø-a-qn-i
pn - nom	field- dat	do 3- fact -plough- prs
‘Maizer is ploughing the field.’

67. smell kwin-Ø x-o-qan (PRS)

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

mišgu	ši-är-s	benzin-i	kwin-Ø	x-o-qan
poss 1	hand- pl - dat	gasoline- gen	smell- nom	io 3- ver : o -hit
‘My hands reek of gasoline.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

68. cross es-Ø-γr-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_EL

X: NOM

Y: EL

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	šuk'w-ka	a-Ø-čäd
pn - nom	road- el	prv : dist - s 3-go
‘Maizer crossed the road (lit. ‘Maizer went over the road’).’

69. sing lä-Ø-γir-aːl-e (AOR)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	xoča	liγral-Ø	lä-Ø-γir-aːl-e
pn - erg	good	song- nom	prv : slightly . ver : s - do 3-sing- pst
‘Maizer sang a good song.’

70. write a-Ø-iːr-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	c'eril-Ø	ad-Ø-iːr-e
pn - erg	letter- nom	prv : slightly - do 3-write- pst
‘Maizer wrote a letter.’

71. drink Ø-i-tr-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	lǝǯe-Ø	la-Ø-iː-š
pn - erg	milk- nom	prv : slightly - do 3- ver : s -drink
‘Maizer drank the milk.’

72. melt ä-Ø-hn-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	cxwia	nakic-Ø	ad-Ø-hin-e
pn - erg	lead	piece- nom	prv : dist - do 3-melt- pst
‘Maizer melted a piece of lead.’

73. match x-e-sg-u (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

al	lärdq'-Ø	mišgu	k'aba-s	x-e-sg-u
dem . prox	belt- nom	poss 1	dress- dat	io 3- ver : r -match- prs
‘This belt matches my dress.’

74. leave x-ä-cwr-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	lent'ex-Ø	ka-la-x-cwir
pn - erg	l ent'exi- nom	prv : outward - prv : slightly - io 3-leave
‘Maizer left Lent'exi for good.’

75. cover a-l-päːr-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

č'äm-Ø	p'ol-s	a-l-päːr-i
hay- nom	floor- dat	prv : dist - s 3-cover- prs
‘The hay covers the floor.’

76. remember a-Ø-mt'q'ašq'id (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	kor-Ø	xoča-Ø	a-Ø-mt'q'ašq'id
pn - dat	house- nom	good- nom	prv : dist - io 3-remember
‘Maizer remembers the house well.’

77. help x-o-murǯ-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	gegi-s	lo-x-murǯ-e
pn - erg	pn - dat	prv : slightly . ver : o - io 3-help- pst
‘Maizer helped Gegi.’

78. understand (language) x-e-sm-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	lǝznu	nin-Ø	x-e-sm-i
pn - dat	m egrelian	language- nom	io 3- ver : r -hear- prs
‘Maizer understands Megrelian.’

79. hit (target) x-ej-xen-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

kor-s	xel-Ø	x-e-jäx
house- dat	lightning- nom	io 3- ver : sup -fall_upon
‘Lightning struck (lit. ‘fell upon’) the house.’

80. cut oneself Ø-i-kwc-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_INS

X: ERG

Y: INS

Locus: Y

maizer-d	lac'bural-wš	ničw-Ø	äd-Ø-kwic
pn - erg	razor- ins	face- nom	prv : dist . ver : s - do 3-cut
‘Maizer cut himself (lit. ‘cut his face’) with a razor.’
Note: The mentioning of the word ‘face’ here is obligatory.

81. get stuck x-e-p'oːnt'q'-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

č'ik-Ø	st'ol-s	la-x-p'ont'q'-äːn
cup- nom	table- dat	prv : slightly - io 3-stick- pst
‘The cup got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) deš x-ä-c'r-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gegi-s	deš	a-x-c'ind-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	neg . pot	prv : dist - io 3-win- pst
‘Maizer failed to win against Gegi.’
Note: There is no dedicated lexical item meaning ‘lose (a game).’

83. be glad x-ä-xiäd (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	c'eril-Ø	ad-x-iːd-ǝn
pn - dat	letter- nom	prv : dist - io 3-be_glad- pst
‘Maizer was glad about the letter.’

84. speak x-a-gǝrg-äl-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	x-a-gǝrg-äl-i
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : sup -talk- vpl - prs
‘Maizer is talking to Lile.’

85. give birth a-Ø-twe-n-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

lile-d	č'q'int'-Ø	an-Ø-taw-e
pn - erg	boy- nom	prv : prox - do 3-beget- pst
‘Lile begot a boy.’

86. drop x-o-šq'd-en-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	č'ik-Ø	č-ot-šq'äd
pn - dat	cup- nom	prv : downward - prv : dist . ver : o . io 3-drop
‘Maizer dropped the cup.’

87. govern Ø-a-mǝrtäːw-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	gušgwej	sopel-s	Ø-a-mǝrtäːw-i
pn - nom	poss 1 pl . incl	village- dat	do 3- fact -govern- prs
‘Maizer governs our village.’

88. miss x-a-c'wdun-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_BEN

X: DAT

Y: BEN

Locus: XY

maizer-s	lile-šd	x-a-c'wdun-i
pn - dat	pn - ben	io 3- ver : sup -miss- prs
‘Maizer misses Lile.’

89. follow es-Ø-qer-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	es-Ø-qer-i
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : dist - io 3-follow- prs
‘Maizer follows Lile.’

90. dismount ä-Ø-sk'n-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_ABL.SUBL

X: ERG

Y: ABL.SUBL

Locus: Y

maizer-d	č'äž-xän-ču	an-Ø-sk'in-e
pn - erg	horse- abl - subl	prv : prox - s 3-hop- pst
‘Maizer hopped down from the horse.’

91. listen x-o-hwnär-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	radio-s	x-o-hwnär-i
pn - nom	radio- dat	io 3- ver : o -listen- prs
‘Maizer is listening to the radio.’

92. obey x-o-ǯräw-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	dede-s	čiγad	x-o-ǯräw-i
pn - nom	mother- dat	always	io 3- ver : o -obey- prs
‘Maizer obeys (his) mother.’

93. hear x-e-sm-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	musik'a-Ø	x-e-sm-i
pn - dat	music- nom	io 3- ver : r -hear- prs
‘Maizer hears the music.’

94. mix lä-x-načt-äːn (AOR)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

twil-Ø	lǝǯe-s	lä-x-načt-äːn
honey- nom	milk- dat	prv : slightly - io 3-mix- pst
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’

95. look x-o-sgd-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	dec-s	x-o-sgd-i
pn - nom	sky- dat	io 3- ver : o -look_at- prs
‘Maizer is looking at the sky.’

96. take off Ø-i-ked (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	pupäik'a-Ø	k-aː-Ø-t'k'id
pn - erg	jersey- nom	prv : outward - prv : dist - do 3-undress
‘Maizer took off (his) jersey.’

97. dream (sleeping) x-eː-cn-äw (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	lile-Ø	x-eː-cn-äw
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : r -dream- sm
‘Maizer dreams about Lile.’

98. agree adu-s x-a-t'ːul-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	lile-s	aduː-Ø	x-äː-kw-e
pn - erg	pn - dat	yes- nom	io 3- ver : sup -tell- pst
‘Maizer agreed with Lile’ (lit. ‘Maizer told Lile “yes”’).

99. have a quarrel x-e-cwäːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	ät-cuːdː-a
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : dist . io 3. ver : o -quarrel- pst
‘Maizer had a quarrel with Lile.’

100. cost x-a-ǯeš (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_NOM(NO.AGR)

X: NOM

Y: NOM(NO.AGR)

Locus: Y

al	č'ik-Ø	ešxu	lar-Ø	x-a-ǯeš
dem . prox	cup- nom	one	l ari- nom	io 3- ver : sup -resemble
‘This cup costs one Lari.’

101. shoot at x-ä-pšwd-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	näp'ol-s	a-x-pišwd
pn - erg	bird- dat	prv : dist - io 3-shoot
‘Maizer shot at the bird.’

102. pour Ø-i-šd-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	č'ik-te-isga	šakär-Ø	äd-Ø-šid
pn - erg	cup- all - iness	sugar- nom	prv : dist . ver : s - do 3-scatter
‘Maizer poured the sugar into the cup.’

103. lose a-Ø-kräw-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	k'ǝl-ar-Ø	ad-Ø-karw-e
pn - erg	key- pl - nom	prv : dist - do 3-lose- pst
‘Maizer lost (his) keys.’

104. sink Ø-i-q'm-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_INESS

X: NOM

Y: INESS

Locus: Y

cicw-Ø	lic-isga	č-äd-Ø-q'im-äːn
cat- nom	water- iness	prv : downward - prv : dist - s 3-drown- pst
‘The cat drowned in the water.’
Note: This verb usually requires an animate subject and can also mean ‘choke.’

105. kill ad-Ø-gär-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	gegi-Ø	ad-Ø-gäːr
pn - erg	pn - nom	prv : dist - do 3-kill. pst
‘Maizer killed Gegi.’

106. hit a-Ø-qd-e (FUT)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	gegi-s	ši-Ø	x-a-qid
pn - erg	pn - dat	hand- nom	io 3- ver : sup -hit
‘Maizer hit Gegi with (his) hand.’

107. kiss x-e-qx-äːn (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	xaq'ba-ži	lä-x-qax-äːn
pn - nom	pn - dat	cheek- superess	prv : slightly - io 3-kiss- pst
‘Maizer kissed Lile on the cheek.’

108. read Ø-i-č'wdaːn-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	saint'ereso	lǝir-Ø	ad-Ø-č'odaːn-e
pn - erg	interesting	book- nom	prv : dist - do 3-read- pst
‘Maizer read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) a-Ø-ktun-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-d	pxule-Ø	ad-Ø-kutwn-e
pn - erg	finger- nom	prv : dist - do 3-move- pst
‘Maizer moved his finger.’

110. respect a-l-gwen-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: NOM

Locus: TR

maizer-Ø	lile-s	a-l-gwen-i
pn - nom	pn - dat	prv : dist - s 3-value- prs
‘Maizer respects Lile’ (lit. ‘Maizer values Lile’).

111. be squeamish x-ä-sisg (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	c'idär	šedmak'wd-är-Ø	x-ä-sisg
pn - dat	dirty	plates&dishes- pl - nom	io 3- ver : sup -hate
‘Maizer is squeamish about dirty dishes.’

112. be content x-a-žax (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	miča	gezal-Ø	x-a-žax
pn - dat	poss 3	child- nom	io 3- ver : sup -name
‘Maizer is proud of his child.’

113. fall in love sga-x-eː-lt'-i (FUT)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	lile-Ø	la-x-lat'-ǝn
pn - dat	pn - nom	prv : slightly - io 3-love- pst
‘Maizer fell in love with Lile.’

114. trust x-e-munden-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	x-e-munden-i
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : r -trust- prs
‘Maizer trusts Lile.’

115. sympathise x-o-žr-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	di-Ø	x-o-žr-i
pn - dat	mother- nom	io 3- ver : o -pity- prs
‘Maizer sympathizes with his mother.’

116. envy x-a-txäm (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_BEN

X: DAT

Y: BEN

Locus: XY

maizer-s	lile-šd	x-a-txäm
pn - dat	pn - ben	io 3- ver : sup -envy
‘Maizer envies Lile.’

117. be angry x-e-xrin-äːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_DAT

X: NOM

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-s	x-e-xrin-äːl
pn - nom	pn - dat	io 3- ver : r -become_angry- vpl
‘Maizer is angry with Lile.’

118. be surprised x-a-sk'wrel (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	lile-š-xän-ka	sačukar-Ø	at-sak'wrel-ǝn
pn - dat	pn - gen - abl - el	gift- nom	prv : dist . io 3-be_surprised- pst
‘Maizer was surprised at the gift from Lile.’

119. love (tea) x-a-lät' (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	čai-Ø	x-a-lät'
pn - dat	tea- nom	io 3- ver : sup -love
‘Maizer loves tea.’

120. enjoy x-a-siäm (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	ätu	čai-Ø	x-a-siäm
pn - dat	hot	tea- nom	io 3- ver : sup -please
‘Maizer is pleased by hot tea.’

121. want x-a-k'-u (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	maxe	mobilur-Ø	x-a-k'-u
pn - dat	new	cell_phone- nom	io 3- ver : sup -want- prs
‘Maizer wants a new cell phone.’

122. have a grudge Ø-i-xrin-äːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: SUPERESS

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	lile-ži	Ø-i-xrin-äːl
pn - nom	pn - superess	s 3- ver : s -grudge- vpl
‘Maizer has a grudge against Lile.’

123. take offence x-a-sdik' (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_ABL.EL

X: DAT

Y: ABL.EL

Locus: XY

maizer-s	lile-š-xän-ka	at-sa-sdk'-ǝn
pn - nom	pn - gen - abl - el	prv : dist . io 3- aug -offend- pst
‘Maizer took offence at Lile.’
Note: The use of the overt genitive marker on the noun, unlike some other "ABL-EL" forms, is conditioned morphonologically.

124. upset gwi-s x-ä-zγun-e (PRS)

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

maizer-d	lile-s	gwi-Ø	a-γzigwn-e
pn - erg	pn - dat	heart- nom	prv : dist -[ io 3]-hurt
‘Maizer greatly upset Lile.’

125. marvel xoča-Ø x-a-bž-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	al	kaläk-Ø	gun	xoča-Ø	la-x-baž-ǝn
pn - dat	dem . prox	town	very	good- nom	prv : slightly . io 3-deem- pst
‘Maizer was impressed by this town a lot’ (lit. ‘Maizer felt like evaluating this town very well’).

126. despise x-ä-sisg (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	gegi-Ø	x-ä-sisg
pn - dat	pn - nom	io 3- ver : sup -hate
‘Maizer despises of Gegi.’

127. get upset gwi-Ø x-e-k'wšin-i (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GENguga

X: DAT

Y: GEN_guga

Locus: XY

maizer-s	miča	č'q'int'-i	guγa	gwi-Ø	lä-x-k'wäš
pn - dat	poss 3	boy- gen	because	heart- nom	prv : slightly - io 3-hurt
‘Maizer got upset with his son’ (lit. ‘Maizer got his heart hurt because of his boy’).

128. get irritated Ø-i-xrin-äːl (PRS)

Valency pattern: NOM_SUPERESS

X: NOM

Y: SUPERESS

Locus: Y

maizer-Ø	miča	gezal-ži	Ø-i-xrin-äːl
pn - nom	poss 3	child- superess	s 3- ver : s -grudge- vpl
‘Maizer is getting angry with his child.’

129. be fond xoča-Ø x-a-bž-a (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_NOM

X: DAT

Y: NOM

Locus: X

maizer-s	gegi-Ø	xoča-Ø	x-a-bž-a
pn - dat	pn - nom	good- nom	io 3- ver : sup -deem- prs
‘Maizer is fond of Gegi’ (lit. ‘Maizer finds Gegi good’).

130. be shy x-o-šgur (PRS)

Valency pattern: DAT_GEN

X: DAT

Y: GEN

Locus: XY

maizer-s	miča	nak'latx-iš	x-o-šgur
pn - dat	poss 3	height- gen	io 3- ver : o -be_shy
‘Maizer is shy of his height.’