Twi

Contributed by Kwadwo Brobbey Nti.

K.N.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2024 by Kwadwo Brobbey Nti in his capacity of a native speaker of Twi. In the process of preparing the dataset, we benefited from feedback from Natalia Bogomolova and then Andrey Shluinsky. After this, the data have been substantially reanalyzed based on scholarly consultations by Anna Struck and additional evaluations by Rosemary Arden. The English version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Nti, Kwadwo Brobbey. 2024. Bivalent patterns in Twi. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on June 21, 2024; last revised on December 12, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Coordinates: 6.35, -1.33.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Niger-Congo, genus: Tano.
Macro-area: Sub-Saharan Africa.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain wᴐ

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	wᴐ	tiyadeε	bi
pn	have. prs	headache	indef
‘Kofi has a headache.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as part of a nominal compound.

2. have (illness) wᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	wᴐ	papu	no
pn	have. prs	flu	def
‘Kofi has the flu.’

3. be afraid suro

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	suro	ᴐkraman	no
pn	fear. prs	dog	def
‘Kofi is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw to

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	to-o	εboᴐ	bi
pn	throw- pst	stone	indef
‘Kofi threw a stone.’

5. have enough wᴐ dodoᴐ

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

seesei	Kofi	wᴐ	sika	dodoᴐ
now	pn	have. prs	money	enough
‘Kofi now has enough money.’
Note: Not included in the database because the intended meaning is expressed by a structurally discontinuous combination (predicate + adnominal modifier).

6. resemble sε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	sε	nana
pn	resemble. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi resembles grandfather.’

7. believe gye di

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	gye	nana	di
pn	take. prs	grandfather	eat
‘Kofi believes grandfather.’

8. take fa

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	fa-a	nwoma	bi
pn	take- pst	book	indef
‘Kofi took a book.’

9. see hunu

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hunu	efie	bi
pn	see. prs	house	indef
‘Kofi sees a house.’

10. influence kentene

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

mfeε	kentene	nkaeε
age	influence. prs	memory
‘Age influences memory.’

11. encounter hyia

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hyia-a	nana
pn	encounter- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi encountered grandfather.’

12. enter wura

Valency pattern: SBJ_mu

X: SBJ

Y: mu

Locus: Y

Kofi	wura-a	efie	no	mu
pn	enter- pst	house	def	in
‘Kofi entered the house.’

13. win di nkunim

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

Kofi	di-i	nana	so	nkunim
pn	eat- pst	grandfather	on	victory
‘Kofi beat grandfather.’

14. go out pue firi

Valency pattern: SBJ_mu

X: SBJ

Y: mu

Locus: Y

Kofi	pue-e	firi	fie	no	mu
pn	go- pst	come_out	house	def	in
‘Kofi went out of the house.’

15. drive ka

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-ka	nantwie	no
pn	prog -touch	cow	def
‘Kofi is driving the cow.’

16. bend koa

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	koa-a	nkorabata	no
pn	bend- pst	branch	def
‘Kofi bent the branch.’

17. tell kakyerε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	kakyerε-ε	nana
pn	tell- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi told grandfather.’

18. hold kita

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-kita	nwoma	bi
pn	prog -hold	book	indef
‘Kofi is holding a book.’

19. catch up kᴐto

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	kᴐto-o	ne	nana
pn	catch(up)- pst	3 sg . poss	grandfather
‘Kofi caught up with grandfather.’

20. milk kyim nufusuo

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	kyim-m	nantwie	nufusuo	no
pn	extract- pst	cow	breast.milk	def
‘Kofi milked the cow.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

21. reach duru

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

Kofi	duru-u	kokoᴐ	no	so
pn	reach- pst	bank	def	on
‘Kofi reached the bank.’

22. touch sᴐ

Valency pattern: SBJ_mu

X: SBJ

Y: mu

Locus: Y

Kofi	sᴐ-ᴐ	fasuo	no	mu
pn	touch- pst	wall	def	in
‘Kofi touched the wall.’

23. fight ko

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ne	nana	re-ko
pn	with	grandfather	prog -fight
‘Kofi and his grandfather are fighting.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

24. be friends yε amfoᴐ

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ne	nana	yε	nn-amfoᴐ
pn	with	grandfather	be/do	pl -friend
‘Kofi and grandfather are friends.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

25. think dwene

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	re-dwene	nana	ho
pn	prog -think	grandfather	inner_self
‘Kofi is thinking about grandfather.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

26. eat di

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	di-i	aprε	bi
pn	eat- pst	apple	indef
‘Kofi ate an apple.’

27. fry kye

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	kye-e	nsuomnam	no
pn	fry- pst	fish	def
‘Kofi fried the fish.’

28. wait twεn

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-twεn	nana
pn	prog -wait	grandfather
‘Kofi is waiting for grandfather.’

29. forget werεfiri

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	werε-firi-i	kwan	foforᴐ	no
pn	mind-remove- pst	road	other	def
‘Kofi forgot the other road.’

30. depend gyina

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

nkaeε	gyina	mfeε	so
memory	stand. prs	age	on
‘Memory depends on age.’

31. call frε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	frε-ε	nana
pn	call- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi called grandfather.’

32. get to know hunu

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hunu-u	nana	bεyε	afe
pn	see- pst	grandfather	ago	year
‘Kofi got to know grandfather a year ago.’

33. know nim

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	nim	nana
pn	know. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi knows grandfather.’

34. play (instrument) bᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-bᴐ	sanku	no
pn	prog -hit	guitar	def
‘Kofi is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid tetε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	tetε	nana
pn	avoid. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi avoids grandfather.’

36. make yε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	yε-ε	nkurafidie	bi
pn	be/do- pst	mousetrap	indef
‘Kofi made a mousetrap.’

37. make fun di fεw

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	re-di	nana	ho	fεw
pn	prog -eat	grandfather	inner_self	mockery
‘Kofi is making fun of grangfather.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

38. have wᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	wᴐ	lᴐᴐle	bi
pn	have. prs	car	indef
‘Kofi has a car.’

39. look for hwehwε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-hwehwε	ne	safoa
pn	prog -look	3 sg . poss	key
‘Kofi is looking for his key.’

40. paint ka

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	ka-a	ban	no	ho
pn	touch- pst	fence	def	inner_self
‘Kofi painted the fence.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

41. bite ka

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

ᴐkraman	bi	ka-a	nana
dog	indef	touch- pst	grandfather
‘A dog bit grandfather.’

42. forfeit hwere

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hwere-e	ne	fie
pn	lose- pst	3 sg . poss	house
‘Kofi lost his house.’

43. try to catch kyere

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-kyere	ᴐkra	no
pn	prog -catch	cat	def
‘Kofi is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break bu

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	bu-u	abaa	bi
pn	break- pst	stick	indef
‘Kofi broke a stick.’

45. flatter dεfεdεfε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-dεfεdεfε	nana
pn	prog -flatter	grandfather
‘Kofi is flattering grandfather.’

46. love (person) dᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	dᴐ	nana
pn	love. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi loves grandfather.’

47. wave woso

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-woso	duku	bi
pn	prog -wave	handkerchief	indef
‘Kofi is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream so daeε

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	re-so	lᴐᴐle	mono	bi	ho	daeε
pn	prog -reach	car	new	indef	inner_self	dream
‘Kofi is dreaming of a new car.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

49. wash hohoro

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hohoro-o	kuruwa	no
pn	wash- pst	cup	def
‘Kofi washed the cup.’

50. put on hyε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hyε-ε	ne	trokoso
pn	put(on)- pst	3 sg . poss	trousers
‘Kofi put on his trousers.’

51. be called frε

Valency pattern: DO_PSEUDOOBJ

X: DO

Y: PSEUDOOBJ

Locus: XY

saa	akadeε	yi	yε-frε-ε	no	kᴐmpase
this	tool	def	1 pl -call- pst	def	compass
‘This tool is called a compass.’

52. punish twe aso

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	twe-e	ne	babarima	aso
pn	pull- pst	3 sg . poss	son	ear
‘Kofi punished his son.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

53. attack tohyε

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

pataku	bi	tohyε-ε	ᴐpofoni	bi	so
bear	indef	attack- pst	fisherman	indef	on
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) hyε ma

Valency pattern: mu_SBJ

X: mu

Y: SBJ

Locus: X

nsuo	hyε-ε	bokiti	no	mu	ma
water	stick- pst	bucket	def	in	full
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find hunu

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hunu-u	ne	n-safoa
pn	find- pst	3 sg . poss	pl -key
‘Kofi found his keys.’

56. be short nni

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	nni	euro	baako
pn	lack	euro	one
‘Kofi lacks one euro.’

57. hate tan

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	tan	nana
pn	hate. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi hates grandfather.’

58. like pε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	pε	saa	atadeε	yi
pn	like. prs	this	shirt	def
‘Kofi likes this shirt.’

59. need hia

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hia	sika
pn	need. prs	money
‘Kofi needs money.’

60. surround twa

Valency pattern: SBJ_hyia

X: SBJ

Y: hyia

Locus: Y

a-fasuo	twa	kuropᴐn	no	hyia
pl -wall	cut	city	det	around
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain ka

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

a-ka	Kofi	10	euros
perf -leave	pn	10	euros
‘Kofi has 10 euros left.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

62. answer bua

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	bua-a	ᴐkyerεkyerεni	no
pn	answer- pst	teacher	def
‘Kofi answered the teacher.’

63. open bue

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	bue-e	toa	no
pn	open- pst	can	def
‘Kofi opened the can.’

64. be different da nso firi

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

daabi,	m’=atadeε	no	da	nso	firi	wo	deε	ho
no( neg )	1 sg ( poss )=shirt	def	to_be_distinguished	to_be_distinguished	come_out	2 sg	poss	inner_self
‘No, my shirt is different from yours.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

65. fall behind ka

Valency pattern: SBJ_akyi

X: SBJ

Y: akyi

Locus: Y

Kofi	ka-a	nana	akyi
pn	touch- pst	grandfather	behind
‘Kofi fell behind grandfather.’

66. plough funtum

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-funtum	asaase	no
pn	prog -plough	field	def
‘Kofi is ploughing the field.’

67. smell hwa

Valency pattern: SBJ_tese

X: SBJ

Y: tese

Locus: Y

me	nsa	hwa	tesε	fagoo
1 sg ( poss )	hands	smell	like	gasoline
‘My hands smell like gasoline.’

68. cross twa

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	twa-a	kwan	no
pn	cut- pst	road	def
‘Kofi crossed the road.’

69. sing to

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	to-o	dwom	dεεdε	bi
pn	throw- pst	song	beautiful	indef
‘Kofi sang a beautiful song.’

70. write twerε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	twerε-ε	krataa	bi
pn	write- pst	letter	indef
‘Kofi wrote a letter.’

71. drink nom

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	nom-m	meekye	no
pn	drink- pst	milk	def
‘Kofi drank the milk.’

72. melt naane

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	naane-e	kᴐbere	sini	bi
pn	melt- pst	lead	piece	indef
‘Kofi melted a piece of lead.’

73. match kᴐ yie

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

saa	abᴐso	yi	ne	m’=atadeε	kᴐ	yie
this	belt	def	with	1 sg . poss =dress	go( prs )	well
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

74. leave firi

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	firi-i	ne	a	kuropᴐn	ofirim
pn	come_out- pst	3 sg . poss	indef	city	native
‘Kofi left his native city.’

75. cover kata

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

ntiasoᴐ	no	kata	fam	no	nyinaa
carpet	def	cover. prs	floor	def	whole
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember kae

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	kae	fie	no	yie
pn	remember. prs	house	def	well
‘Kofi remembers the house well.’

77. help boa

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	boa-a	nana
pn	help- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi helped grandfather.’

78. understand (language) te ase

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	te	Franse	kasa	ase
pn	understand. prs	f rench	language	understand
‘Kofi understands French.’

79. hit (target) bᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

ayiremo	bᴐ-ᴐ	fie	no
lightning	hit- pst	house	def
‘Lightning hit the house.’

80. cut oneself twa ne ho

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	de	bleedi	bi	twa-a	ne	ho
pn	hold	blade	indef	cut- pst	3 sg . poss	inner_self
‘Kofi cut himself with a blade.’ (= lit. ‘Kofi took a blade and cut himself.’)
Note: Not included in the database because the intended meaning is expressed by a combination of two clauses.

81. get stuck ka

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

abobᴐdeε	no	ka-a	pono	no	so
glass	def	touch- pst	table	def	on
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) di nkoguo

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	di-i	nkoguo	wᴐ	nana
pn	eat- pst	failure	have	grandfather
‘Kofi lost to grandfather.’

83. be glad ani gye

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ani	gye-e	krataa	no	ho
pn	eye	take- pst	letter	def	inner_self
‘Kofi was rejoiced about the letter.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

84. speak kasa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ne	nana	re-kasa
pn	with	grandfather	prog -speak
‘Kofi is speaking with grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

85. give birth wo

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

maame	no	wo-o	babarima	bi
woman	def	give_birth- pst	son	indef
‘The woman gave birth to a son.’

86. drop gya

Valency pattern: SBJ_mu

X: SBJ

Y: mu

Locus: Y

Kofi	gya-a	abobᴐdeε	no	mu
pn	leave- pst	glass	def	in
‘Kofi dropped the glass.’

87. govern di

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

Kofi	di	yεn	kuro	so
pn	eat. prs	1 p . pl ( poss )	town	on
‘Kofi governs our town.’

88. miss afe

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	afe	nana
pn	miss. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi misses grandfather.’

89. follow di

Valency pattern: SBJ_akyi

X: SBJ

Y: akyi

Locus: Y

Kofi	di	nana	akyi
pn	eat. prs	grandfather	behind
‘Kofi follows grandfather

90. dismount sifiri

Valency pattern: SBJ_so

X: SBJ

Y: so

Locus: Y

Kofi	sifiri-i	pᴐnkᴐ	no	so
pn	get_down- pst	horse	def	on
‘Kofi got down from the horse.’

91. listen tie

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-tie	kasanoma
pn	prog -listen	radio
‘Kofi is listening to radio.’

92. obey tie

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	tie	ne	maame	aberebiara
pn	listen( prs )	3 sg . poss	mother	always
‘Kofi always listens to his mother.’

93. hear te

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	te	nwom	no
pn	perceive. prs	music	def
‘Kofi hears the music.’

94. mix fra

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

εwoᴐ	no	fra-a	meekye	no
honey	def	mix- pst	milk	def
‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’

95. look hwε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	re-hwε	m-mununkum	no
pn	prog -look	pl -cloud	def
‘Kofi is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off woro

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	woro-o	n’=atadeε
pn	take_off- pst	3 sg . poss =shirt
‘Kofi took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) so daeε

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	so	nana	ho	daeε
pn	reach	grandfather	inner_self	dream
‘Kofi dreams about grandfather.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

98. agree yε adwene

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ne	nana	yε-ε	adwene
pn	with	grandfather	be/do- pst	mind
‘Kofi agreed with grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

99. have a quarrel nya akasakasa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ne	nana	a-nya	akasakasa	bi
pn	with	grandfather	prf -get	fight	indef
‘Kofi has a quarrel with grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

100. cost yε

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

saa	kuruwa	yi	yε	baako	euro
this	cup	def	be/do	one	euro
‘This cup costs one euro.’

101. shoot at to tuo

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	to-o	anomaa	no	tuo
pn	throw- pst	bird	def	gun
‘Kofi shot at the bird.’

102. pour hwie

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hwie-e	asikyire	no
pn	pour- pst	sugar	def
‘Kofi poured the sugar.’

103. lose yera

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	yera-a	ne	n-safoa
pn	lose- pst	3 sg . poss	pl -key
‘Kofi lost his keys.’

104. sink mem

Valency pattern: SBJ_mu

X: SBJ

Y: mu

Locus: Y

dua	no	mem-m	nsuo	no	mu
tree	def	sink- pst	river	def	in
‘The log sank in the river.’

105. kill kum

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	kum-m	nana
pn	kill- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi killed grandfather.’

106. hit bᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	bᴐ-ᴐ	nana
pn	hit- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi hit grandfather.’

107. kiss fe ano

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	fe-e	nana	ano
pn	like- pst	grandfather	lip
‘Kofi kissed grandfather.’

108. read kan

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	kan-n	nwoma	anikanika	bi
pn	read- pst	book	interesting	indef
‘Kofi read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) keka

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	keka-a	ne	nsatea
pn	move- pst	3 sg . poss	finger
‘Kofi moved his finger.’

110. respect bu

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	bu	nana
pn	respect. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi respects grandfather.’

111. be squeamish akyiwadeɛ yɛ

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	akyiwadeɛ	yɛ	n-kukuo	fi
pn	taboo	is	pl -dish	dirty
‘Kofi is squeamish about dirty dishes,’ lit. ‘Kofi’s taboo is dirty dishes..’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

112. be content bodwo

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	bodwo-o	ne	ba	no	ho
pn	be_satisfied- pst	3 sg . poss	son	def	inner_self
‘Kofi is satisfied with his son.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

113. fall in love tᴐ dᴐ

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	tᴐ-ᴐ	Mary	dᴐ	mu
pn	fall- pst	pn	love	in
‘Kofi fell in love with Mary.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

114. trust wᴐ awerɛhyɛm

Valency pattern: SBJ_mu

X: SBJ

Y: mu

Locus: Y

Kofi	wᴐ	nana	mu	awerɛhyɛm
pn	have. prs	grandfather	in	trust
‘Kofi has trust in grandfather.’

115. sympathise wᴐ tema

Valency pattern: SBJ_ma

X: SBJ

Y: ma

Locus: Y

Kofi	wᴐ	tema	ma	ne	maame
pn	have. prs	sympathy	for	3 sg . poss	mother
‘Kofi sympathises with his mother.’
Note: The word "ma" is indeed a preposition.

116. envy anibere

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	anibere	nana
pn	envy. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi envies grandfather.’

117. be angry bo fu

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	bo	a-fu	ne	nana
pn	breast	perf -swell	3 sg . poss	grandfather
‘Kofi is angry with his grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier. Arguably, this sentence literally means ‘Kofi’s breast got swollen (at) his grandfather’. See (Christaller 1933: 29, 142)

118. be surprised dwiri

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ho	dwiri-i	no	wᴐ	saa	akyεdeε	yi
pn	inner_self	disperse- pst	him	have	this	gift	def
‘Kofi was surprised at this gift.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP within a dependent clause. The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

119. love (tea) dᴐ

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	dᴐ	tee
pn	love. prs	tea
‘Kofi loves tea.’

120. enjoy ani gye

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ani	gye	tee	hyeehye	ho
pn	eye	take. prs	tea	hot	inner_self
‘Kofi enjoys hot tea.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

121. want hia

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	hia	fon	foforᴐ
pn	want. prs	phone	new
‘Kofi wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge wᴐ trimpᴐ

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	wᴐ	nana	ho	trimpᴐ
pn	have. prs	grandfather	inner_self	grudge
‘Kofi has a grudge against grandfather.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.

123. take offence bo fu

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	bo	fu-u	nana
pn	breast	swell- pst	grandfather
‘Kofi got cross with grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier. Arguably, this sentence literally means ‘Kofi’s breast got swollen (at) his grandfather’. See (Christaller 1933: 29, 142)

124. upset ma bo fu

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ma-a	nana	bo	fue-ε	paa
pn	cause- pst	grandfather	breast	swell- pst	greatly
‘Kofi greatly upset grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier. Arguably, this sentence literally means ‘Kofi made his grandfather's breast swell’.

125. marvel ani gye

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ani	gye-e	kuro	yi	ho
pn	eye	take- pst	town	this	inner_self
‘Kofi was impressed by this town.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

126. despise tan

Valency pattern: TR

X: SBJ

Y: DO

Locus: TR

Kofi	tan	nana
pn	despise. prs	grandfather
‘Kofi despises grandfather.’

127. get upset bo fu

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	bo	fu-u	ne	babarima
pn	breast	swell- pst	3 sg . poss	son
‘Kofi got upset with his son.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier. Arguably, this sentence literally means ‘Kofi’s breast got swollen (at) his son’. See (Christaller 1933: 29, 142)

128. get irritated hyɛ abufuo

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	babaa	re-hyɛ	no	abufuo
pn	daughter	prog -put	him	anger
‘Kofi’s daughter is irritating him.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

129. be fond ani gye

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

Kofi	ani	gye	nana	ho
pn	eye	take. prs	grandfather	inner_self
‘Kofi is fond of grandfather.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

130. be shy fɛre

Valency pattern: SBJ_ho

X: SBJ

Y: ho

Locus: Y

Kofi	fɛre	ne	tenten	ho
pn	be_shy	3 sg . poss	height	inner_self
‘Kofi is shy about his height.’
Note: The word "ho" functions as a nominal head. Since it is grammaticalized and appears in combinations with specific verbs, it is tentatively interpreted as an argument-encoding device.