Wolof
Contributed by Denis Creissels
The data were gathered in 2023-2024 with the collaboration of Alain Christian Bassène, Sokhna Bao-Diop, El Hadji Dieye, Jean-Léopold Diouf, Kader Gueye and Joseph Jean-François Nunez. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used although French was the language of elicitation and discussion.
How to cite
Creissels, Denis. 2024. Bivalent patterns in Wolof.
In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames.
(Data first published on June 19, 2024;
last revised on July 2, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info ,
Accessed on .)
Basic info
Coordinates: 15.24, -16.09 .
Genealogy (as given in WALS ). Family: Niger-Congo, genus: Wolof.
Macro-area: Sub-Saharan Africa.
Grammar notes
Basic clause structure and the transitive construction
In Wolof, the basic constituent order in verbal clauses is S V (O) (X) (S = subject, V = verb, O = object, X = oblique). However, when an object or an oblique is focalized (which requires the use of special verb forms, see below), it moves to the clause-initial position. Neither subjects nor objects are flagged, whereas obliques are standardly introduced by prepositions.
The manifestations of the grammatical relation subject (which encompasses the sole argument of semantically monovalent verbs and the agent of prototypical transitive verbs) are the pre-verbal position of the relevant NP and the obligatory indexation on the verb by means of person-number markers. Wolof has several sets of subject indexes depending on the TAM-polarity-focus value expressed by the verb, and some tenses are characterized by portmanteau markers resulting from the fusion of the subject index and another inflectional marker. The subject NP is syntactically optional.
The grammatical relation object (labelled "OBJ" in the dataset below), whose prototype is the patient of prototypical transitive verbs, is characterized by the possibility of using object indexes attached to the verb. The object indexes express person and number. In contrast to subject indexes, they are not obligatory, and are used only to represent topical objects. They do not vary according to the TAM-polarity-focus value expressed by the verb and never fuse with other elements within the verb form.
Wolof does not have the equivalent of the grammatical relation indirect object (or dative) as found in the languages of Europe. By contrast, double-object constructions are extremely productive. For example, recipients of the verbs of giving can only be encoded as one of the two objects in a double-object construction. The relative order of T and R is free, at least in the typical cases when the semantic nature of T and R excludes ambiguity. Both T and R can be indexed on the verb by means of the same paradigm of indexes, and both can be indexed at the same time, but the relative order of the indexes is determined by the following hierarchy: 1st/2nd person > 3rd person plural > 3rd person singular. This means that a sentence that is literally ‘I gave-3PL-3SG’ is ambiguous (‘it to them’ or ‘them to him/her’), since indexes do not express gender distinctions.
Nouns and noun phrases
There is no grammatical case in Wolof.
Wolof has a gender system historically cognate with those found across the Niger-Congo language family (commonly designated as “noun class systems”), but very atypical in many respects. This system relies on an agreement mechanism in which every noun form has the ability to act as the controller in one of 10 possible agreement patterns (or “classes”). The agreement patterns in which nouns can be involved as controllers are conventionally designated by letters that evoke the phonological form of the agreement markers: B, G, K, J, L, M, Ñ, S, W, Y
The overwhelming majority of Wolof nouns have the same form in the singular and in the plural, and number is only apparent in the class markers attached to several types of noun modifiers, including the definite article, cf. for example xale b-i ‘the child’ / xale y-i ‘the children’, where i is the definiteness marker, and b and y are the class markers. With nouns belonging to other genders, other pairs of class markers may be involved in the expression of the singular vs. plural distinction, cf. nit k-i ‘the person’ / nit ñ-i ‘the persons’. In such a system, genders can be defined as sets of nominal lexemes selecting the same pairs of “classes” for their modifiers. For example, xale ‘child’ belongs to gender B/Y, whereas nit ‘person’ belongs to gender K/Ñ. Babou and Loporcaro (2016) identify a total of 17 possible class pairings, or genders, most of them including a very limited number of nouns.
Among the ten classes whose selection may depend on a nominal controller, six can only express the number value ‘singular’ (B, G, K, L, M and W), two can only express the number value ‘plural’ (Y and Ñ), and the remaining two (S and J) may express either singular or plural, depending on the other class with which they form a pair.
Verb inflection and verb lemmas
The verbs used in the dataset below are cited in their bare form.
Wolof has an atypical system of verb inflection, in the sense that most of the inflectional markers attached to verbs cannot be straightforwardly analyzed as prefixes or suffixes. They are rather clitics whose position with respect to the verb stem and the other markers attached to the verb puts into play a complex set or rules.
In addition to subject indexation and object indexation, verb inflection expresses not only TAM and polarity, but also focus, with a distinction between subject focus, object/oblique focus and verb focus (Robert 2000).
Glossing abbreviations
APPL — applicative, AUX — auxiliation marker, CAUS — causative, cl — class (agreement pattern), CPL — completive, CSTR — construct, DEF — definite, DEM — demonstrative, DIST — distal, EqCOP — equative copula, EXPL — expletive, FocO/X — focalization of an object or of an oblique, FocS — focalization of the subject, FocV — focalization of the verb, FUT — future, IMP — imperative, INCPL — incompletive, INDEF — indefinite, INTERR — interrogative (determiner or pronoun), LOC — locative, MID — middle, NEG — negative, NONDUM — nondumitive (‘not yet’), NSPS — non-specific subject, oI — object index, OPT — optative, PL — plural, PN — proper name, POSS — possessive, PRF — perfect, PROH — prohibitive, PRST — presentative, PST — past, Q — question marker, RECP — reciprocal, REL — relativizer, SG — singular, sI — subject index, SOC — sociative.
B, G, K, J, L, M, Ñ, S, W and Y between parentheses immediately after the lexical gloss of nouns identify their gender, with the following simplification. Given that very few nouns select a class other than Y in the plural, the plural class is only indicated if it is not the default plural class Y. For example, nit is glossed ‘person(K/Ñ), whereas xale , which belongs to gender B/Y, is not glossed ‘child(B/Y)’, but simply ‘child(B)’.
Data
Subset examples by valency pattern
Any
NA
DO_SBJ
OBJ_PSEUDOOBJ
SBJ_ak
SBJ_ci
SBJ_ndax
SBJ_ni
TR
Subset examples by locus
Any
*
TR
X
XY
Y
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
sama
bopp
dafa-y
metti
poss
:1
sg
head(
b
)
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
ache
‘I have a headache,’ lit. ‘My head aches.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.
Valency pattern:
DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
b-an
jàngoro
moo
ko
dal
cl
b
-
interr
sickness(
b
)
f
oc
s
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:3
sg
invade
‘Which sickness does he suffer from?’, lit. ‘Which sickness invaded him?’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
ragal
xaj
b-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
fear
dog(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘I’m afraid of the dog.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-u
sànni
xeer
w-i
cl
k
-
interr
throw
stone(
w
)
cl
w
-
def
‘Who threw the stone?’
Valency pattern:
DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
l-i
ñu
ma
may
doy
na
ma
cl
l
-
rel
s
i
:3
pl
o
i
:1
sg
give
satisfy
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:1
sg
‘What they gave me is enough for me,’ lit. ‘What they gave me satisfies me.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ni
X: SBJ
Y: ni
Locus: Y
Omar
dafa
bëgg-a
mel
ni
Sàmba
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
want-
aux
resemble
like
pn
‘Omar wants to be like Sàmba.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gëm
naa
la
believe
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
o
i
:2
sg
‘I believe you.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
jél
sama
caabi
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
take
poss
:1
sg
key(
j
)
‘I am taking my key.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gis
naa
sa
yaay
marse
see
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
poss
:2
sg
mother(
j
)
market(
b
)
‘I saw your mother at the market.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
sa-y
at
dafa-y
am
njeexital
ci
sa
xel
poss
:2
sg
-cl
y
year(
m
)
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
have
end(
l
)
loc
poss
:2
sg
mind(
m
)
‘Age influences memory,’ lit. ‘Your years have an end on your mind.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
tase
naa
ak
moom
mu
jëm
marse
meet
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
with
3
sg
s
i
:3
sg
head.towards
market(
b
)
‘I met him/her (accidentally), s/he was heading towards the market.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
jaan
j-i
dugg
na
ci
pax
m-i
snake(
j
)
cl
j
-
def
enter
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
loc
hole(
m
)
cl
m
-
def
‘The snake went into the hole.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar
daan
na
Sàmba
pn
beat
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
pn
‘Omar beat Samba.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
génn-e
woto
b-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
get.out-
appl
car
cl
b
-
def
‘I am getting out of the car.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-u
faral
nag
y-i
démb
cl
k
-
interr
drive.to.pasture
cow(
w
)
cl
y
-
def
yesterday
‘Who drove the cows to the pasture yesterday?’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sëgg-al
naa
banqaas
b-i
get.bent-
caus
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
branch(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘I bent the branch’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Gaynde
ne
y-eneen
rab
y-i
gan
g-i
nit
la
pn
tell
cl
y
-other
animal(
w
)
cl
y
-
def
stranger(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
person(
k
/Ñ)
e
q
cop
‘Gaynde (Lion) told the other animals: "The stranger is a human being".’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale
b-i
dafa
ŋàbb
a-b
téere
child(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
hold
indef
-cl
b
book(
b
)
‘The child is holding a book in his hands.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan
dab
na
ma
ci
yoon
w-i
pn
catch.up
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:1
sg
loc
road(
w
)
cl
w
-
def
‘Usmaan caught me up on the road.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sàmm
b-i
angi-y
ratt
nag
w-i
herdsman(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
prst
-
incpl
milk
cow
(
w
) cl
w
-
def
‘The herdsman is milking the cow.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
àgg-ag-unu
ci
tefes
g-i
reach-
nondum
-
prf
.
neg
.s
i
:1
pl
loc
shore(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
‘We haven’t reached the shore yet.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
wextan
wi
dafa
laal
yàpp
wi
bile(
w
)
cl
w
-
def
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
touch
meat(
w
)
cl
w
-
def
‘The bile has touched the meat.’
Note: Context: a person is butchering an animal.
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
war-uloo
xeex
ak
moom
must-
prf
.
neg
.s
i
:2
sg
fight
with
3
sg
‘You should not fight with him.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Omar
dina
xaritoo
ak
Sàmba
pn
fut
.s
i
:3
sg
be.friends
with
pn
‘Omar will be friends with Sàmba.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
xalaat
sama
yaay
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
think
poss
:1
sg
mother(
j
)
‘I am thinking about my mother.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar
a
lekk
ceeb
b-i
pn
f
oc
s
eat
rice(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘It’s Omar who ate the rice.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
saaf
yàpp
w-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
fry
meat(
w
)
cl
w
-
def
‘I fried the meat.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sama
jabar
laa-y
xaar
poss
:1
sg
wife(
j
)
f
oc
o
/
x
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
wait
‘It’s my wife I’m waiting for.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
bañ
nga
fàtte
ma
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
be.afraid
s
i
:2
sg
forget
o
i
:1
sg
‘I’m afraid that you’ll forget me.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
mungi
aju
ci
dikk-am
s
i
:3
sg
.
prst
depend
loc
arrival-
poss
:3
sg
‘It depends on his arrival.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dem-al
woo
Musaa
go-
imp
.
sg
call
pn
‘Go call Musaa!’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Omar
dafa
xam-ante
ak
Musaa
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
know-
recp
with
pn
‘Omar got acquainted with Musaa.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ñ-épp
xam
nañu
ma
clÑ-all
know
prf
.s
i
:3
pl
o
i
:1
sg
‘Everybody knows me.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
mën
nga
tëgg
ndënd
be.able
prf
.s
i
:2
sg
play
drum(
m
)
‘Can you play the drum?’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dafa-y
teggi
sunu
kër
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
avoid
poss
:1
pl
house(
g
)
‘He avoids our house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Musaa
dafa-y
defar
gaal
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
make
boat(
g
)
‘Musaa makes boats.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-u
nekk
ci
xare
war-ul-a
ree
k-u
ñu
jam
cl
k
-
rel
be
loc
battle(
b
)
must-
prf
.
neg
.s
i
:3
sg
-
aux
make.fun
cl
k
-
rel
s
i
:3
pl
wound
‘A person engaged in a battle should not make fun of a person who has been wounded.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan
am
na
ñaar-i
xar
pn
have
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
two-
cstr
.
pl
sheep(
m
)
‘Usmaan has two sheep.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
wut
sama
caabi
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
look.for
poss
:1
sg
key(
j
)
‘I am looking for my key.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
maa
pintiir
kër-am
f
oc
s
.s
i
:1
sg
paint
house(
g
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘It was me who painted his house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xaj
b-i
dafa
màtt
xale
b-i
dog(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
bite
child(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘The dog bit the child.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ñàkk
nga
sa
xaalis
ci
dara
lose
prf
.s
i
:2
sg
poss
:2
sg
money(
b
)
loc
nothing
‘You lost your money for nothing.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
alkaati
b-i
dafa-y
jéem-a
jàpp
sàcc
b-i
policeman(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
try-
aux
catch
thief(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘The policeman is trying to catch the thief.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
damm
tànk-u
siis
b-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
break
leg(
b
)-
cstr
chair(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘I broke the leg of the chair.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dafa
la-y
jay
te
sa
xaalis
a
tax
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:2
sg
-
incpl
flatter
and
poss
:2
sg
money(
b
)
f
oc
s
cause
‘He flatters you, and it’s because of your money.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Umar
dafa
nob
Astu
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
love
pn
‘Umar loves Astu.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale
b-i
yëngal
na
bant
b-i
child(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
wave
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
stick(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘The child waved the stick.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan
bëgg
na
lool
daamar
g-u
bees
pn
want
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
very.much
car(
g
)
cl
g
-
rel
be.new
‘Usmaan is dreaming of a new car.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
fóot
sama-y
yére
suba
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
wash
poss
:1
sg
-cl
y
cloth(
b
)
tomorrow
‘I’ll wash my clothes tomorrow.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xaar-al
ma
sol
y-eneen
yére
wait-
imp
.
sg
s
i
:1
sg
put.on
cl
y
-other
cloth(
b
)
‘Wait until I put on other clothes!’
Valency pattern:
OBJ_PSEUDOOBJ
X: OBJ
Y: PSEUDOOBJ
Locus: XY
naka
lañu-y
tudd-e
garab
g-ii
ci
wolof
how
f
oc
o
/
x
.s
i
:3
pl
-
incpl
be.named-
caus
tree(
g
)
cl
g
-
dem
loc
wolof(
b
)
‘What’s the name of this tree in Wolof?’ lit. ‘How do they name this tree in Wolof?’
Note: This is a transimpersonal construction.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Yàlla
dina
mbugël
moykat
b-i
g
od
fut
.s
i
:3
sg
chasten
sinner(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘God will chasten the sinner.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gaynde
g-i
song
na
rëbb
b-i
lion(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
attack
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
hunter(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘The lion attacked the hunter.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dafa
taw
pax
m-i
sol-u
ak
ndox
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
rain
hole(
m
)
cl
m
-
def
fill-
mid
with
water(
m
)
‘It rained, and the hole filled with water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
fekk
naa
xale
y-i
sa
kër
nijaay
find
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
child(
b
)
cl
y
-
def
poss
:2
sg
house(
g
)
uncle(
j
)
‘I found the children at your uncle’s.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
ñàkk
xaalis
jamano
y-ii
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
lack
money(
b
)
time(
j
)
cl
y
-
dem
‘I lack money these days.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dafa
ma
bañ
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:1
sg
hate
‘He hates me.’
Valency pattern:
DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
sa
simiis
b-i
neex
na
ma
your
shirt(
b
/
y
)
cl
b
-
def
please
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:1
sg
‘I like your shirt,’ lit. ‘Your shirt pleases me.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
soxla
xaalis
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
need
money(
b
)
‘I need money.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
a-y
tund
a
léem
dëkk
b-i
indef
-cl
y
hill(
w
)
f
oc
s
surround
village(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘Hills surround the village.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dese
naa
tuuti
ceeb
still.have
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
some
rice(
b
)
‘I have some rice left.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
bu
ma
jot-ee
sa
bataaxal
dinaa
la
tontu
if
s
i
:1
sg
receive-
cpl
poss
:2
sg
letter(
b
)
fut
.s
i
:1
sg
o
i
:2
sg
answer
‘If I receive your letter, I’ll answer you.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
tijji
naa
bunt
b-i
ak
caabi
j-i
open
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
door(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
with
key(
j
)
cl
j
-
def
‘I opened the door with the key.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
démb
wute
na
ak
tey
yesterday
differ
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
with
today
‘The past is different from the present.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Sàmba
gàbb
na
tool
b-i
pn
plough
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
field(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘Sàmba ploughed the field.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
robb
bii
sama
parfoŋ-u
yaay
la-y
xeeñ
dress(
b
/
y
)
cl
b
-
dem
my
perfume-of
mother(
j
/
y
)
f
oc
o
-
incpl
smell
‘This dress smells of my mother’s perfume.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
jàll
dex
g-i
ak
gaal
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
cross
river(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
with
boat(
g
)
‘I crossed the river by boat.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
woy
nga
woy
w-u
neex
sing
prf
.s
i
:2
sg
song(
w
)
cl
w
-
rel
be.pleasant
‘You sang a beautiful song.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
bind
naa
b-enn
bataaxal
write
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
cl
b
-one
letter(
b
)
‘I wrote a letter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
naan
naa
meew
drink
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
milk(
m
)
‘I drank milk.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
naaj
w-i
a
seey-al
galaas
g-i
sun(
w
)
cl
w
-
def
f
oc
s
melt-
caus
ice(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
‘It was the sun that melted the ice.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
kër
g-i
yell
na
ci
nun
house(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
suit
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
loc
1
pl
‘The house suits us.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar
wacc
na
jabar-am
pn
leave
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
wife(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Omar left his wife.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
geen-u
géléem
sàng-ul
a-w
taat
te
dàq-ul
i
wéñ
tail-
cstr
camel(
g
/
y
)
cover-
neg
indef
-cl
w
buttock(
w
/
y
)
and
keep.away-
neg
pl
fly(
w
/
y
)
‘The camel’s tail doesn’t cover a buttock and doesn’t keep flies away.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
maangi-y
fàttali-ku
bes
b-a
nu
dajee
foofa
s
i
:1
sg
.
prst
-
incpl
remind-
mid
day(
b
)
cl
b
-
rel
s
i
:1
pl
meet
there
I remember the day when we met there.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dem-al
dimmali
sa
yaay
go-
imp
.
sg
help
poss
:2
sg
mother(
j
)
‘Go help your mother!’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dégg
ngeen
wolof
understand
prf
.s
i
:2
pl
wolof(
b
)
‘Do you understand Wolof?’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
mellax
m-i
dafa
daanu
ci
kër
g-i
lightning(
m
)
cl
m
-
def
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
fall
loc
house(g)
cl
g
-
def
‘The lightning hit the house,’ (lit. ‘The lightning fell on the house’).
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dama
dagg
ak
lañset
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
cut
with
razor(
b
)
‘I cut myself with a razor.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
singom
a
taq
ci
dàll-am
chewing.gum(
b
)
f
oc
s
get.stuck
loc
shoe(
w
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘It was chewing gum that got stuck to his shoe.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dama
damyée
ak
Omar
ak
Sàmba
ma
gañe
Omar
wantee
ma
ñàkk
ak
Sàmba
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
play.checkers
with
pn
and
pn
s
i
:1
sg
beat
pn
but
s
i
:1
sg
lose
and
pn
‘I played checkers with Omar and Sàmba, I beat Omar but I lost to Sàmba.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
dama
bég
ci
seen
defaroo
b-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
rejoice
loc
poss
:2
pl
reconciliation(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘I rejoice at your reconciliation.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dem-al
waxtaan
ak
Usmaan
go-
imp
.
sg
converse
with
pn
‘Go talk to Usmaan!’ lit. ‘Go converse with Usmaan!’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Astu
jur
na
juróom-i
doom
pn
give
birth
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
five-
cstr
.
pl
child(
j
)
‘Astu gave birth to five children.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
rot-al
nga
sama
caq
fall-
caus
prf
.s
i
:2
sg
poss
:1
sg
string(
b
)
‘You dropped my string.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar
a
jiit-e
mbootaay
b-i
pn
f
oc
s
be_first-
appl
asociation(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘It’s Omar who runs the association.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan
dafa
namm
yaay-am
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
miss
mother(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Usmaan misses his mother.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale
b-i
angi-y
topp
yaay-am
child(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
prst
-
incpl
follow
mother(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘The child follows his mother.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
golo
g-i
wàcc
na
garab
g-i
monkey(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
get.down
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
tree(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
‘The monkey got down from the tree.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
déglu
xibaar
y-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
listen
news(
b
)
cl
y
-
def
‘I am listening to the news.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
nanga
déggal
sa-y
waajur
opt
.s
i
:2
sg
obey
poss
:2
sg
-cl
y
parent(
b
)
‘You should obey your parents.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dégg
nga
jóolooli
b-i
hear
prf
.s
i
:2
sg
bell(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘Did you hear the bell?’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
yëng-al
ko
ba
soow
m-i
jaxas-oo
ak
lem
g-i
stir
o
i
:3
sg
until
milk(
m
)
cl
m
-
def
mix-
appl
.
mid
with
honey(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
‘Stir that until the milk gets mixed with the honey!’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xool-al
foto
b-i
look-
imp
picture(
b
/
y
)
cl
b
-
def
‘Look at the picture!’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale
b-i
simmi
na
tubay-am
child(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
take.off
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
pants(
b
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘The child took off his pants.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
biig
gént
naa
sama
yaay
last.night
dream
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
poss
:1
sg
mother(
j
)
‘Last night I dreamed about my mother.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Omar
ànd
na
ak
Sàmba
pn
agree
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
with
pn
‘Omar agrees with Sàmba.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Astu
dafa
d-oon
xul-oo
ak
Bintu
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
incpl
-
pst
scold-
recp
with
pn
‘Astu was arguing with Bintu.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ñaata
la
sa
montar
b-i
jar
how.much
f
oc
o
/
x
.s
i
:3
sg
poss
:2
sg
watch(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
cost
‘How much did your watch cost?’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
rëbbkat
b-i
diir
na
kéwél
g-i
waaye
dafa
ko
moy
hunter(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
target
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
antelope(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
but
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:3
sg
miss
‘The hunter targeted the antelope but he missed.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sotti
nañu
suuf
ci
ëtt
b-i
pour
prf
.s
i
:3
pl
sand(
s
)
loc
yard(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘They poured sand in the yard.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sànk
naa
sama
caabi
y-i
lose
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
poss
:1
sg
key(
j
)
cl
y
-
def
‘I lost my keys.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
gaal
g-i
angi-y
suux
ci
dex
g-i
boat(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
prst
-
incpl
sink
loc
river(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
‘The boat is sinking in the river.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gaynde
g-i
rey
na
rëbbkat
b-i
lion(
g
)
cl
g
-
def
kill
prf
.s
i
:3
sg
hunter(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘The lion killed the hunter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
yaa
dóor
xale
b-i
f
oc
s
.s
i
:2
sg
hit
child(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘It was you who hit the child.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-i
ma-y
fóon
moom
la
cl
k
-
rel
s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
kiss
3
sg
e
q
cop
‘The one I’ll kiss, it’s him.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y
jàng
téere
b-i
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
read
book(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
‘I am reading the book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ndax
mën
nga
yëngal
sa-y
nopp
q
be.able
prf
.s
i
:2
sg
move
poss
:2
sg
-cl
y
ear(
b
)
‘Can you move your ears?’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale
itam
dañu
ko
war-a
wormaal
child(
b
)
too
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
pl
o
i
:3
sg
should-
aux
respect
‘Children should be respected too,’ lit. ‘A child too, they should respect him.’
Valency pattern:
DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
banaana
dafa
ma
génnaliku
banana(
b
)
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:1
sg
disgust
‘Bananas disgust me.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
sama
doom
dafa-y
liggéey
b-u
baax
ca
ekkool
b-a
bég
naa
ci
moom
poss
:1
sg
child(
j
)
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
work
cl
b
-
rel
be.good
loc
.
dist
school(
b
)
cl
b
-
def
.
dist
be.satisfied
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
loc
3
sg
‘My child does well at school, I am satisfied with him.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Sàmba
dafa
gis
Astu
rekk
daldi
ko-y
nob
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
see
pn
as.soon.as
start
o
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
love
‘As soon as Sàmba saw Astu, he fell in love with her,’ lit. ‘... he started loving her.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
yow
rekk
laa
wóolu
2
sg
only
f
oc
o
/
x
.s
i
:1
sg
trust
‘It’s only in you that I trust.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama
yërëm
Rama
ndax
doom-am
j-i
gaañu
démb
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
symathize
pn
because.of
child(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
cl
j
-
rel
pass.away
yesterday
‘I sympathize with Rama because of her child who passed away yesterday.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan
dafa
ñee
xarit-am
ndax
kër-am
g-u
bees
g-i
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
envy
friend(
b
)-
poss
:3
sg
because_of
house(
g
)-
poss
:3
sg
rel
-cl
g
be.new
cl
g
-
def
‘Usmaan envies his friend because of his new house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-enn
du
mer-e
xarit-am
cl
k
-one
fut
.
neg
.s
i
:3
sg
get.angry-
appl
friend(
b
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Nobody should get angry with his friend.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
waar-u
naa
ci
dikk-am
surprise-
mid
prf
.s
i
:1
sg
loc
coming(
b
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘I am surprised at his coming.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
waa
Senegaal
dañu
bëgg
ceeb-u
jén
people
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
pl
like
rice(
b
)-
cstr
fish(
w
)
‘The Senegalese like rice and fish.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gannaaw_bu
ma
liggéey-ee
b-u
baax
dama-y
bànneexoo
àttaya
j-u
neex
after
s
i
:1
sg
work-
cpl
cl
b
-
rel
be.good
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
-
incpl
rejoice.
appl
tea(
j
)
cl
j
-
rel
be.pleasant
‘After having worked well, I enjoy a good tea.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
màngo
b-ii
laa
bëgg
mango(
b
)
cl
b
-
dem
f
oc
o
/
x
.s
i
:1
sg
want
‘It’s this mango that I want.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar
dafa-y
tong
Sàmba
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
-
incpl
have.a.grudge
pn
‘Omar has a grudge against Sàmba.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan
dafa
ma
mer-e
ndax
dama
diiŋat
doom-am
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:1
sg
get.angry-
appl
because
f
oc
v
.s
i
:1
sg
criticize
child(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Usmaan took offence at me because I criticized his child.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
l-u
la
naqadi
cl
l
-
interr
o
i
:2
sg
make.sad
‘What made you sad?’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
bés
b-u
nekk
ma
yéem-u
ci
mbir-u
Yàlla
day(
b
)
cl
b
-
rel
exist
s
i
:1
sg
amaze-
mid
loc
work(
m
)-
cstr
g
od
‘Every day I marvel at the work of God.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sa
jabar
j-i
dafa
la
jéppi
poss
:2
sg
wife(
j
)
cl
j
-
def
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
o
i
:2
sg
despise
‘Your wife despises you.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ndax
X: SBJ
Y: ndax
Locus: Y
Usmaan
dafa
jaaxle
ndax
doom-am
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
worry
because.of
child(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Usmaan is concerned about his child’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ndax
X: SBJ
Y: ndax
Locus: Y
Usmaan
dafa
xoñoñ
ndax
doom-am
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
get.irritated
because.of
child(
j
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Usmaan got irritated with his child.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar
dafa
sopp
Sàmba
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
be.fond.of
pn
‘Omar is fond of Sàmba.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
Usmaan
dafa
rus
ci
gàttaay-am
pn
f
oc
v
.s
i
:3
sg
be.ashamed
loc
small.stature(
b
)-
poss
:3
sg
‘Usmaan is ashamed of his small stature.’