BivalTyp

Wolof

Contributed by Denis Creissels

D.C.'s photo

The data were gathered in 2023-2024 with the collaboration of Alain Christian Bassène, Sokhna Bao-Diop, El Hadji Dieye, Jean-Léopold Diouf, Kader Gueye and Joseph Jean-François Nunez. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used although French was the language of elicitation and discussion.

How to cite

Creissels, Denis. 2024. Bivalent patterns in Wolof. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on June 19, 2024; last revised on July 2, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on .)

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

In Wolof, the basic constituent order in verbal clauses is S V (O) (X) (S = subject, V = verb, O = object, X = oblique). However, when an object or an oblique is focalized (which requires the use of special verb forms, see below), it moves to the clause-initial position. Neither subjects nor objects are flagged, whereas obliques are standardly introduced by prepositions.

The manifestations of the grammatical relation subject (which encompasses the sole argument of semantically monovalent verbs and the agent of prototypical transitive verbs) are the pre-verbal position of the relevant NP and the obligatory indexation on the verb by means of person-number markers. Wolof has several sets of subject indexes depending on the TAM-polarity-focus value expressed by the verb, and some tenses are characterized by portmanteau markers resulting from the fusion of the subject index and another inflectional marker. The subject NP is syntactically optional.

The grammatical relation object (labelled "OBJ" in the dataset below), whose prototype is the patient of prototypical transitive verbs, is characterized by the possibility of using object indexes attached to the verb. The object indexes express person and number. In contrast to subject indexes, they are not obligatory, and are used only to represent topical objects. They do not vary according to the TAM-polarity-focus value expressed by the verb and never fuse with other elements within the verb form.

Wolof does not have the equivalent of the grammatical relation indirect object (or dative) as found in the languages of Europe. By contrast, double-object constructions are extremely productive. For example, recipients of the verbs of giving can only be encoded as one of the two objects in a double-object construction. The relative order of T and R is free, at least in the typical cases when the semantic nature of T and R excludes ambiguity. Both T and R can be indexed on the verb by means of the same paradigm of indexes, and both can be indexed at the same time, but the relative order of the indexes is determined by the following hierarchy: 1st/2nd person > 3rd person plural > 3rd person singular. This means that a sentence that is literally ‘I gave-3PL-3SG’ is ambiguous (‘it to them’ or ‘them to him/her’), since indexes do not express gender distinctions.

Nouns and noun phrases

There is no grammatical case in Wolof.

Wolof has a gender system historically cognate with those found across the Niger-Congo language family (commonly designated as “noun class systems”), but very atypical in many respects. This system relies on an agreement mechanism in which every noun form has the ability to act as the controller in one of 10 possible agreement patterns (or “classes”). The agreement patterns in which nouns can be involved as controllers are conventionally designated by letters that evoke the phonological form of the agreement markers: B, G, K, J, L, M, Ñ, S, W, Y

The overwhelming majority of Wolof nouns have the same form in the singular and in the plural, and number is only apparent in the class markers attached to several types of noun modifiers, including the definite article, cf. for example xale b-i ‘the child’ / xale y-i ‘the children’, where i is the definiteness marker, and b and y are the class markers. With nouns belonging to other genders, other pairs of class markers may be involved in the expression of the singular vs. plural distinction, cf. nit k-i ‘the person’ / nit ñ-i ‘the persons’. In such a system, genders can be defined as sets of nominal lexemes selecting the same pairs of “classes” for their modifiers. For example, xale ‘child’ belongs to gender B/Y, whereas nit ‘person’ belongs to gender K/Ñ. Babou and Loporcaro (2016) identify a total of 17 possible class pairings, or genders, most of them including a very limited number of nouns.

Among the ten classes whose selection may depend on a nominal controller, six can only express the number value ‘singular’ (B, G, K, L, M and W), two can only express the number value ‘plural’ (Y and Ñ), and the remaining two (S and J) may express either singular or plural, depending on the other class with which they form a pair.

Verb inflection and verb lemmas

The verbs used in the dataset below are cited in their bare form.

Wolof has an atypical system of verb inflection, in the sense that most of the inflectional markers attached to verbs cannot be straightforwardly analyzed as prefixes or suffixes. They are rather clitics whose position with respect to the verb stem and the other markers attached to the verb puts into play a complex set or rules.

In addition to subject indexation and object indexation, verb inflection expresses not only TAM and polarity, but also focus, with a distinction between subject focus, object/oblique focus and verb focus (Robert 2000).

Glossing abbreviations

APPL — applicative, AUX — auxiliation marker, CAUS — causative, cl — class (agreement pattern), CPL — completive, CSTR — construct, DEF — definite, DEM — demonstrative, DIST — distal, EqCOP — equative copula, EXPL — expletive, FocO/X — focalization of an object or of an oblique, FocS — focalization of the subject, FocV — focalization of the verb, FUT — future, IMP — imperative, INCPL — incompletive, INDEF — indefinite, INTERR — interrogative (determiner or pronoun), LOC — locative, MID — middle, NEG — negative, NONDUM — nondumitive (‘not yet’), NSPS — non-specific subject, oI — object index, OPT — optative, PL — plural, PN — proper name, POSS — possessive, PRF — perfect, PROH — prohibitive, PRST — presentative, PST — past, Q — question marker, RECP — reciprocal, REL — relativizer, SG — singular, sI — subject index, SOC — sociative.

B, G, K, J, L, M, Ñ, S, W and Y between parentheses immediately after the lexical gloss of nouns identify their gender, with the following simplification. Given that very few nouns select a class other than Y in the plural, the plural class is only indicated if it is not the default plural class Y. For example, nit is glossed ‘person(K/Ñ), whereas xale, which belongs to gender B/Y, is not glossed ‘child(B/Y)’, but simply ‘child(B)’.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain metti

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
sama bopp dafa-y metti
poss :1 sg head( b ) f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl ache
‘I have a headache,’ lit. ‘My head aches.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

2. have (illness) dal

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
b-an jàngoro moo ko dal
cl b - interr sickness( b ) f oc s .s i :3 sg o i :3 sg invade
‘Which sickness does he suffer from?’, lit. ‘Which sickness invaded him?’

3. be afraid ragal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama ragal xaj b-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg fear dog( b ) cl b - def
‘I’m afraid of the dog.’

4. throw sànni

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-u sànni xeer w-i
cl k - interr throw stone( w ) cl w - def
‘Who threw the stone?’

5. have enough doy

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
l-i ñu ma may doy na ma
cl l - rel s i :3 pl o i :1 sg give satisfy prf .s i :3 sg o i :1 sg
‘What they gave me is enough for me,’ lit. ‘What they gave me satisfies me.’

6. resemble mel

Valency pattern: SBJ_ni
X: SBJ
Y: ni
Locus: Y
Omar dafa bëgg-a mel ni Sàmba
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg want- aux resemble like pn
‘Omar wants to be like Sàmba.’

7. believe gëm

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gëm naa la
believe prf .s i :1 sg o i :2 sg
‘I believe you.’

8. take jél

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y jél sama caabi
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl take poss :1 sg key( j )
‘I am taking my key.’

9. see gis

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gis naa sa yaay marse
see prf .s i :1 sg poss :2 sg mother( j ) market( b )
‘I saw your mother at the market.’

10. influence am njeexital

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
sa-y at dafa-y am njeexital ci sa xel
poss :2 sg -cl y year( m ) f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl have end( l ) loc poss :2 sg mind( m )
‘Age influences memory,’ lit. ‘Your years have an end on your mind.’

11. encounter tase

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
tase naa ak moom mu jëm marse
meet prf .s i :1 sg with 3 sg s i :3 sg head.towards market( b )
‘I met him/her (accidentally), s/he was heading towards the market.’

12. enter dugg

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
jaan j-i dugg na ci pax m-i
snake( j ) cl j - def enter prf .s i :3 sg loc hole( m ) cl m - def
‘The snake went into the hole.’

13. win daan

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar daan na Sàmba
pn beat prf .s i :3 sg pn
‘Omar beat Samba.’

14. go out génne

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y génn-e woto b-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl get.out- appl car cl b - def
‘I am getting out of the car.’

15. drive faral

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-u faral nag y-i démb
cl k - interr drive.to.pasture cow( w ) cl y - def yesterday
‘Who drove the cows to the pasture yesterday?’

16. bend sëggal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sëgg-al naa banqaas b-i
get.bent- caus prf .s i :1 sg branch( b ) cl b - def
‘I bent the branch’

17. tell ne

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Gaynde ne y-eneen rab y-i gan g-i nit la
pn tell cl y -other animal( w ) cl y - def stranger( g ) cl g - def person( k /Ñ) e q cop
‘Gaynde (Lion) told the other animals: "The stranger is a human being".’

18. hold ŋàbb

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale b-i dafa ŋàbb a-b téere
child( b ) cl b - def f oc v .s i :3 sg hold indef -cl b book( b )
‘The child is holding a book in his hands.’

19. catch up dab

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan dab na ma ci yoon w-i
pn catch.up prf .s i :3 sg o i :1 sg loc road( w ) cl w - def
‘Usmaan caught me up on the road.’

20. milk ratt

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sàmm b-i angi-y ratt nag w-i
herdsman( b ) cl b - def prst - incpl milk cow ( w ) cl w - def
‘The herdsman is milking the cow.’

21. reach àgg

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
àgg-ag-unu ci tefes g-i
reach- nondum - prf . neg .s i :1 pl loc shore( g ) cl g - def
‘We haven’t reached the shore yet.’

22. touch laal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
wextan wi dafa laal yàpp wi
bile( w ) cl w - def f oc v .s i :3 sg touch meat( w ) cl w - def
‘The bile has touched the meat.’
Note: Context: a person is butchering an animal.

23. fight xeex

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
war-uloo xeex ak moom
must- prf . neg .s i :2 sg fight with 3 sg
‘You should not fight with him.’

24. be friends xaritoo

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Omar dina xaritoo ak Sàmba
pn fut .s i :3 sg be.friends with pn
‘Omar will be friends with Sàmba.’

25. think xalaat

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y xalaat sama yaay
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl think poss :1 sg mother( j )
‘I am thinking about my mother.’

26. eat lekk

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar a lekk ceeb b-i
pn f oc s eat rice( b ) cl b - def
‘It’s Omar who ate the rice.’

27. fry saaf

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama saaf yàpp w-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg fry meat( w ) cl w - def
‘I fried the meat.’

28. wait xaar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sama jabar laa-y xaar
poss :1 sg wife( j ) f oc o / x .s i :1 sg - incpl wait
‘It’s my wife I’m waiting for.’

29. forget fàtte

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama bañ nga fàtte ma
f oc v .s i :1 sg be.afraid s i :2 sg forget o i :1 sg
‘I’m afraid that you’ll forget me.’

30. depend aju

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
mungi aju ci dikk-am
s i :3 sg . prst depend loc arrival- poss :3 sg
‘It depends on his arrival.’

31. call woo

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dem-al woo Musaa
go- imp . sg call pn
‘Go call Musaa!’

32. get to know xamante

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Omar dafa xam-ante ak Musaa
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg know- recp with pn
‘Omar got acquainted with Musaa.’

33. know xam

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ñ-épp xam nañu ma
clÑ-all know prf .s i :3 pl o i :1 sg
‘Everybody knows me.’

34. play (instrument) tëgg

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
mën nga tëgg ndënd
be.able prf .s i :2 sg play drum( m )
‘Can you play the drum?’

35. avoid teggi

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dafa-y teggi sunu kër
f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl avoid poss :1 pl house( g )
‘He avoids our house.’

36. make defar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Musaa dafa-y defar gaal
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl make boat( g )
‘Musaa makes boats.’

37. make fun ree

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-u nekk ci xare war-ul-a ree k-u ñu jam
cl k - rel be loc battle( b ) must- prf . neg .s i :3 sg - aux make.fun cl k - rel s i :3 pl wound
‘A person engaged in a battle should not make fun of a person who has been wounded.’

38. have am

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan am na ñaar-i xar
pn have prf .s i :3 sg two- cstr . pl sheep( m )
‘Usmaan has two sheep.’

39. look for wut

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y wut sama caabi
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl look.for poss :1 sg key( j )
‘I am looking for my key.’

40. paint pintiir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
maa pintiir kër-am
f oc s .s i :1 sg paint house( g )- poss :3 sg
‘It was me who painted his house.’

41. bite màtt

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xaj b-i dafa màtt xale b-i
dog( b ) cl b - def f oc v .s i :3 sg bite child( b ) cl b - def
‘The dog bit the child.’

42. forfeit ñàkk

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ñàkk nga sa xaalis ci dara
lose prf .s i :2 sg poss :2 sg money( b ) loc nothing
‘You lost your money for nothing.’

43. try to catch jéema jàpp

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
alkaati b-i dafa-y jéem-a jàpp sàcc b-i
policeman( b ) cl b - def f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl try- aux catch thief( b ) cl b - def
‘The policeman is trying to catch the thief.’

44. break damm

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama damm tànk-u siis b-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg break leg( b )- cstr chair( b ) cl b - def
‘I broke the leg of the chair.’

45. flatter jay

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dafa la-y jay te sa xaalis a tax
f oc v .s i :3 sg o i :2 sg - incpl flatter and poss :2 sg money( b ) f oc s cause
‘He flatters you, and it’s because of your money.’

46. love (person) nob

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Umar dafa nob Astu
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg love pn
‘Umar loves Astu.’

47. wave yëngal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale b-i yëngal na bant b-i
child( b ) cl b - def wave prf .s i :3 sg stick( b ) cl b - def
‘The child waved the stick.’

48. dream bëgg lool

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan bëgg na lool daamar g-u bees
pn want prf .s i :3 sg very.much car( g ) cl g - rel be.new
‘Usmaan is dreaming of a new car.’

49. wash fóot

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y fóot sama-y yére suba
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl wash poss :1 sg -cl y cloth( b ) tomorrow
‘I’ll wash my clothes tomorrow.’

50. put on sol

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xaar-al ma sol y-eneen yére
wait- imp . sg s i :1 sg put.on cl y -other cloth( b )
‘Wait until I put on other clothes!’

51. be called tudde

Valency pattern: OBJ_PSEUDOOBJ
X: OBJ
Y: PSEUDOOBJ
Locus: XY
naka lañu-y tudd-e garab g-ii ci wolof
how f oc o / x .s i :3 pl - incpl be.named- caus tree( g ) cl g - dem loc wolof( b )
‘What’s the name of this tree in Wolof?’ lit. ‘How do they name this tree in Wolof?’
Note: This is a transimpersonal construction.

52. punish mbugël

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Yàlla dina mbugël moykat b-i
g od fut .s i :3 sg chasten sinner( b ) cl b - def
‘God will chasten the sinner.’

53. attack song

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gaynde g-i song na rëbb b-i
lion( g ) cl g - def attack prf .s i :3 sg hunter( b ) cl b - def
‘The lion attacked the hunter.’

54. fill (intr) solu

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dafa taw pax m-i sol-u ak ndox
f oc v .s i :3 sg rain hole( m ) cl m - def fill- mid with water( m )
‘It rained, and the hole filled with water.’

55. find fekk

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
fekk naa xale y-i sa kër nijaay
find prf .s i :1 sg child( b ) cl y - def poss :2 sg house( g ) uncle( j )
‘I found the children at your uncle’s.’

56. be short ñàkk

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama ñàkk xaalis jamano y-ii
f oc v .s i :1 sg lack money( b ) time( j ) cl y - dem
‘I lack money these days.’

57. hate bañ

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dafa ma bañ
f oc v .s i :3 sg o i :1 sg hate
‘He hates me.’

58. like neex

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
sa simiis b-i neex na ma
your shirt( b / y ) cl b - def please prf .s i :3 sg o i :1 sg
‘I like your shirt,’ lit. ‘Your shirt pleases me.’

59. need soxla

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama soxla xaalis
f oc v .s i :1 sg need money( b )
‘I need money.’

60. surround léem

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
a-y tund a léem dëkk b-i
indef -cl y hill( w ) f oc s surround village( b ) cl b - def
‘Hills surround the village.’

61. remain dese

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dese naa tuuti ceeb
still.have prf .s i :1 sg some rice( b )
‘I have some rice left.’

62. answer tontu

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
bu ma jot-ee sa bataaxal dinaa la tontu
if s i :1 sg receive- cpl poss :2 sg letter( b ) fut .s i :1 sg o i :2 sg answer
‘If I receive your letter, I’ll answer you.’

63. open tijji

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
tijji naa bunt b-i ak caabi j-i
open prf .s i :1 sg door( b ) cl b - def with key( j ) cl j - def
‘I opened the door with the key.’

64. be different wute

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
démb wute na ak tey
yesterday differ prf .s i :3 sg with today
‘The past is different from the present.’

65. fall behind *

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.

66. plough gàbb

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Sàmba gàbb na tool b-i
pn plough prf .s i :3 sg field( b ) cl b - def
‘Sàmba ploughed the field.’

67. smell xeeñ

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
robb bii sama parfoŋ-u yaay la-y xeeñ
dress( b / y ) cl b - dem my perfume-of mother( j / y ) f oc o - incpl smell
‘This dress smells of my mother’s perfume.’

68. cross jàll

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama jàll dex g-i ak gaal
f oc v .s i :1 sg cross river( g ) cl g - def with boat( g )
‘I crossed the river by boat.’

69. sing woy

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
woy nga woy w-u neex
sing prf .s i :2 sg song( w ) cl w - rel be.pleasant
‘You sang a beautiful song.’

70. write bind

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
bind naa b-enn bataaxal
write prf .s i :1 sg cl b -one letter( b )
‘I wrote a letter.’

71. drink naan

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
naan naa meew
drink prf .s i :1 sg milk( m )
‘I drank milk.’

72. melt seeyal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
naaj w-i a seey-al galaas g-i
sun( w ) cl w - def f oc s melt- caus ice( g ) cl g - def
‘It was the sun that melted the ice.’

73. match yell

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
kër g-i yell na ci nun
house( g ) cl g - def suit prf .s i :3 sg loc 1 pl
‘The house suits us.’

74. leave wacc

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar wacc na jabar-am
pn leave prf .s i :3 sg wife( j )- poss :3 sg
‘Omar left his wife.’

75. cover sàng

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
geen-u géléem sàng-ul a-w taat te dàq-ul i wéñ
tail- cstr camel( g / y ) cover- neg indef -cl w buttock( w / y ) and keep.away- neg pl fly( w / y )
‘The camel’s tail doesn’t cover a buttock and doesn’t keep flies away.’

76. remember fàttaliku

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
maangi-y fàttali-ku bes b-a nu dajee foofa
s i :1 sg . prst - incpl remind- mid day( b ) cl b - rel s i :1 pl meet there
I remember the day when we met there.’

77. help dimmali

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dem-al dimmali sa yaay
go- imp . sg help poss :2 sg mother( j )
‘Go help your mother!’

78. understand (language) dégg

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dégg ngeen wolof
understand prf .s i :2 pl wolof( b )
‘Do you understand Wolof?’

79. hit (target) daanu

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
mellax m-i dafa daanu ci kër g-i
lightning( m ) cl m - def f oc v .s i :3 sg fall loc house(g) cl g - def
‘The lightning hit the house,’ (lit. ‘The lightning fell on the house’).

80. cut oneself dagg

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dama dagg ak lañset
f oc v .s i :1 sg cut with razor( b )
‘I cut myself with a razor.’

81. get stuck taq

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
singom a taq ci dàll-am
chewing.gum( b ) f oc s get.stuck loc shoe( w )- poss :3 sg
‘It was chewing gum that got stuck to his shoe.’

82. lose (game) ñàkk

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dama damyée ak Omar ak Sàmba ma gañe Omar wantee ma ñàkk ak Sàmba
f oc v .s i :1 sg play.checkers with pn and pn s i :1 sg beat pn but s i :1 sg lose and pn
‘I played checkers with Omar and Sàmba, I beat Omar but I lost to Sàmba.’

83. be glad bég

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
dama bég ci seen defaroo b-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg rejoice loc poss :2 pl reconciliation( b ) cl b - def
‘I rejoice at your reconciliation.’

84. speak waxtaan

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
dem-al waxtaan ak Usmaan
go- imp . sg converse with pn
‘Go talk to Usmaan!’ lit. ‘Go converse with Usmaan!’

85. give birth jur

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Astu jur na juróom-i doom
pn give birth prf .s i :3 sg five- cstr . pl child( j )
‘Astu gave birth to five children.’

86. drop rotal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
rot-al nga sama caq
fall- caus prf .s i :2 sg poss :1 sg string( b )
‘You dropped my string.’

87. govern jiite

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar a jiit-e mbootaay b-i
pn f oc s be_first- appl asociation( b ) cl b - def
‘It’s Omar who runs the association.’

88. miss namm

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan dafa namm yaay-am
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg miss mother( j )- poss :3 sg
‘Usmaan misses his mother.’

89. follow topp

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale b-i angi-y topp yaay-am
child( b ) cl b - def prst - incpl follow mother( j )- poss :3 sg
‘The child follows his mother.’

90. dismount wàcc

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
golo g-i wàcc na garab g-i
monkey( g ) cl g - def get.down prf .s i :3 sg tree( g ) cl g - def
‘The monkey got down from the tree.’

91. listen déglu

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y déglu xibaar y-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl listen news( b ) cl y - def
‘I am listening to the news.’

92. obey déggal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
nanga déggal sa-y waajur
opt .s i :2 sg obey poss :2 sg -cl y parent( b )
‘You should obey your parents.’

93. hear dégg

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dégg nga jóolooli b-i
hear prf .s i :2 sg bell( b ) cl b - def
‘Did you hear the bell?’

94. mix jaxasoo

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
yëng-al ko ba soow m-i jaxas-oo ak lem g-i
stir o i :3 sg until milk( m ) cl m - def mix- appl . mid with honey( g ) cl g - def
‘Stir that until the milk gets mixed with the honey!’

95. look xool

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xool-al foto b-i
look- imp picture( b / y ) cl b - def
‘Look at the picture!’

96. take off simmi

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale b-i simmi na tubay-am
child( b ) cl b - def take.off prf .s i :3 sg pants( b )- poss :3 sg
‘The child took off his pants.’

97. dream (sleeping) gént

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
biig gént naa sama yaay
last.night dream prf .s i :1 sg poss :1 sg mother( j )
‘Last night I dreamed about my mother.’

98. agree ànd

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Omar ànd na ak Sàmba
pn agree prf .s i :3 sg with pn
‘Omar agrees with Sàmba.’

99. have a quarrel xuloo

Valency pattern: SBJ_ak
X: SBJ
Y: ak
Locus: Y
Astu dafa d-oon xul-oo ak Bintu
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg incpl - pst scold- recp with pn
‘Astu was arguing with Bintu.’

100. cost jar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ñaata la sa montar b-i jar
how.much f oc o / x .s i :3 sg poss :2 sg watch( b ) cl b - def cost
‘How much did your watch cost?’

101. shoot at diir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
rëbbkat b-i diir na kéwél g-i waaye dafa ko moy
hunter( b ) cl b - def target prf .s i :3 sg antelope( g ) cl g - def but f oc v .s i :3 sg o i :3 sg miss
‘The hunter targeted the antelope but he missed.’

102. pour sotti

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sotti nañu suuf ci ëtt b-i
pour prf .s i :3 pl sand( s ) loc yard( b ) cl b - def
‘They poured sand in the yard.’

103. lose sànk

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sànk naa sama caabi y-i
lose prf .s i :1 sg poss :1 sg key( j ) cl y - def
‘I lost my keys.’

104. sink suux

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
gaal g-i angi-y suux ci dex g-i
boat( g ) cl g - def prst - incpl sink loc river( g ) cl g - def
‘The boat is sinking in the river.’

105. kill rey

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gaynde g-i rey na rëbbkat b-i
lion( g ) cl g - def kill prf .s i :3 sg hunter( b ) cl b - def
‘The lion killed the hunter.’

106. hit dóor

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
yaa dóor xale b-i
f oc s .s i :2 sg hit child( b ) cl b - def
‘It was you who hit the child.’

107. kiss fóon

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-i ma-y fóon moom la
cl k - rel s i :1 sg - incpl kiss 3 sg e q cop
‘The one I’ll kiss, it’s him.’

108. read jàng

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama-y jàng téere b-i
f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl read book( b ) cl b - def
‘I am reading the book.’

109. move (bodypart) yëngal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
ndax mën nga yëngal sa-y nopp
q be.able prf .s i :2 sg move poss :2 sg -cl y ear( b )
‘Can you move your ears?’

110. respect wormaal

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
xale itam dañu ko war-a wormaal
child( b ) too f oc v .s i :3 pl o i :3 sg should- aux respect
‘Children should be respected too,’ lit. ‘A child too, they should respect him.’

111. be squeamish génnaliku

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
banaana dafa ma génnaliku
banana( b ) f oc v .s i :3 sg o i :1 sg disgust
‘Bananas disgust me.’

112. be content bég

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
sama doom dafa-y liggéey b-u baax ca ekkool b-a bég naa ci moom
poss :1 sg child( j ) f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl work cl b - rel be.good loc . dist school( b ) cl b - def . dist be.satisfied prf .s i :1 sg loc 3 sg
‘My child does well at school, I am satisfied with him.’

113. fall in love daldi nob

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Sàmba dafa gis Astu rekk daldi ko-y nob
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg see pn as.soon.as start o i :3 sg - incpl love
‘As soon as Sàmba saw Astu, he fell in love with her,’ lit. ‘... he started loving her.’

114. trust wóolu

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
yow rekk laa wóolu
2 sg only f oc o / x .s i :1 sg trust
‘It’s only in you that I trust.’

115. sympathise yërëm

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
dama yërëm Rama ndax doom-am j-i gaañu démb
f oc v .s i :1 sg symathize pn because.of child( j )- poss :3 sg cl j - rel pass.away yesterday
‘I sympathize with Rama because of her child who passed away yesterday.’

116. envy ñee

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan dafa ñee xarit-am ndax kër-am g-u bees g-i
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg envy friend( b )- poss :3 sg because_of house( g )- poss :3 sg rel -cl g be.new cl g - def
‘Usmaan envies his friend because of his new house.’

117. be angry mere

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
k-enn du mer-e xarit-am
cl k -one fut . neg .s i :3 sg get.angry- appl friend( b )- poss :3 sg
‘Nobody should get angry with his friend.’

118. be surprised waaru

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
waar-u naa ci dikk-am
surprise- mid prf .s i :1 sg loc coming( b )- poss :3 sg
‘I am surprised at his coming.’

119. love (tea) bëgg

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
waa Senegaal dañu bëgg ceeb-u jén
people pn f oc v .s i :3 pl like rice( b )- cstr fish( w )
‘The Senegalese like rice and fish.’

120. enjoy bànneexoo

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
gannaaw_bu ma liggéey-ee b-u baax dama-y bànneexoo àttaya j-u neex
after s i :1 sg work- cpl cl b - rel be.good f oc v .s i :1 sg - incpl rejoice. appl tea( j ) cl j - rel be.pleasant
‘After having worked well, I enjoy a good tea.’

121. want bëgg

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
màngo b-ii laa bëgg
mango( b ) cl b - dem f oc o / x .s i :1 sg want
‘It’s this mango that I want.’

122. have a grudge tong

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar dafa-y tong Sàmba
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg - incpl have.a.grudge pn
‘Omar has a grudge against Sàmba.’

123. take offence mere

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Usmaan dafa ma mer-e ndax dama diiŋat doom-am
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg o i :1 sg get.angry- appl because f oc v .s i :1 sg criticize child( j )- poss :3 sg
‘Usmaan took offence at me because I criticized his child.’

124. upset naqadi

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
l-u la naqadi
cl l - interr o i :2 sg make.sad
‘What made you sad?’

125. marvel yéemu

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
bés b-u nekk ma yéem-u ci mbir-u Yàlla
day( b ) cl b - rel exist s i :1 sg amaze- mid loc work( m )- cstr g od
‘Every day I marvel at the work of God.’

126. despise jéppi

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
sa jabar j-i dafa la jéppi
poss :2 sg wife( j ) cl j - def f oc v .s i :3 sg o i :2 sg despise
‘Your wife despises you.’

127. get upset jaaxle

Valency pattern: SBJ_ndax
X: SBJ
Y: ndax
Locus: Y
Usmaan dafa jaaxle ndax doom-am
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg worry because.of child( j )- poss :3 sg
‘Usmaan is concerned about his child’

128. get irritated xoñoñ

Valency pattern: SBJ_ndax
X: SBJ
Y: ndax
Locus: Y
Usmaan dafa xoñoñ ndax doom-am
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg get.irritated because.of child( j )- poss :3 sg
‘Usmaan got irritated with his child.’

129. be fond sopp

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: OBJ
Locus: TR
Omar dafa sopp Sàmba
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg be.fond.of pn
‘Omar is fond of Sàmba.’

130. be shy rus

Valency pattern: SBJ_ci
X: SBJ
Y: ci
Locus: Y
Usmaan dafa rus ci gàttaay-am
pn f oc v .s i :3 sg be.ashamed loc small.stature( b )- poss :3 sg
‘Usmaan is ashamed of his small stature.’